Psychology of choice and decision making

September 28, 2019
Psychology of Personality
Angelica Braldi

How to make the right choice? This question arises before every person many times a day. You need to choose clothes, mode of transport, products in the store, determine priorities in monetary expenses, decide how to spend your leisure time. In other words, hundreds of times a day a person faces the need to make a choice and, as a rule, makes it quite easily.

However, when faced with an important decision, many people become confused. For example, if we are not talking about choosing shirts, but about certainty in a profession, getting married, or moving to a new place of residence, doubts begin to swarm in the minds of the vast majority of people, preventing them from making a decision.

Why is it difficult to choose? What does indecisiveness indicate?

Why do people get lost in difficult life situations in which they need to make a choice? Where does the determination that they demonstrate several times a day go, when choosing clothes, products, and ways to spend their leisure time?

Psychologists believe that a lack of decisiveness in difficult life situations is characteristic of extremely responsible and conscientious people. In other words, when a person chooses which shirt to wear, he understands that the decision made will not affect others in any way or cause them serious trouble. He also realizes that the choice he makes will in no way affect the course of his life. Therefore, he makes a decision with ease.

Finding yourself in difficult life circumstances, faced with the need to make a difficult choice that will have an impact on the rest of your life and on other people, a person becomes immersed in doubt. He hesitates to make a decision because he does not want to make a mistake, thereby ruining his own life or causing trouble for others. Such a person does not want to let down loved ones, disappoint them and, at the same time, is not ready to forget his own interests and needs.

What to do in such a situation? How to make the right choice? Don't make a mistake? Psychologists advise first to identify those factors that make decision-making difficult and influence it. In other words, you should start with the reasons why determination disappears.

Science|Society|Universe

10 tips on decision-making strategy based on 10 psychological experiments.

Sometimes, at a crossroads in front of a difficult choice, fear of change and anxiety about the consequences can paralyze us.

In the morning we choose what to wear today, in the evening - what movie to watch, what to do in life, how to choose the right guy or girl...

Life is a continuous series of decisions. It would seem that this is a pleasant pastime that allows us to create our own lives. But often the need to constantly make decisions causes us difficulties - sometimes, within a few seconds, we must evaluate alternatives, balance intuitive feelings and rational thinking, imagine possible scenarios for the further development of events, and then perhaps regret our choice.

That's why sometimes we prefer... not to choose. Psychologists associate this with the fear of change - every new decision frightens us because it upsets the usual balance of life.

Worrying about the consequences can paralyze us. In difficult situations, in order to free ourselves from the difficult need to choose, we risk making an erroneous decision or drawing the wrong conclusion. But not choosing at all is actually worse than making a mistake. Therefore, you need to learn how to do this.

In any situation, there are correct strategies for making the right decision and avoiding a hasty, erroneous one. The English weekly New Scientist has compiled years of research and experimentation on this topic into 10 tips on “how to make the right choice.”

Anchor effect

Hidden influence on decision making.
Our decision may be influenced by the so-called “anchor effect” (or “pegging effect”). This is especially true if we have little basic information to make a decision. Its essence is that if we do not know what to start from, then our conclusions are influenced by the previously perceived random (or imposed) irrelevant information.

The following psychological experiment was conducted: The subjects spun a drum (as in “Field of Miracles”) with numbers from 1 to 100. The drum was specially programmed so that it could only show two numbers - 10 or 65. After spinning the drum, the subjects were asked the question: “Which what percentage of African countries are members of the UN? — The question is obviously complex, the answer to which few people know. But when answering it, a clear influence of the number that had fallen before was noticed - those who got the number 10 named a low percentage (about 25% of countries), and among those who got the number 65, the percentage of African countries that are members of the UN increased sharply - up to 45.

The influence of the “anchor effect” can also be seen in a store where they sell things at a discount. If on the price tag we see the old price of a thing much higher than the current one, then we are most likely to buy it, and not one where the difference between the old and new prices is small. Sellers often use this successfully.

Tip: The anchoring effect is difficult to avoid, so try to get more information on the topic so that extraneous information does not influence your decision.

Too many options

Too many options make it difficult for the brain to process information, which leads to confusion and errors. In the end, after choosing one of the many options, we will be less satisfied because we will believe that we may have missed a better opportunity.

An excess of alternatives paralyzes and confuses us.

US Columbia University psychologist Sheena Iyengar established this through a psychological experiment, conducting an experiment with sweets (photo). Those buyers who analyze too many possible options before purchasing especially suffer from the complexity of choice. The strategy of analyzing as many options as possible works up to a certain limit. The one who chooses the first thing he likes when viewing their sequence gets more pleasure from the result.

Tip: Even if the objectively selected item is not the “best of the best,” you will be satisfied with its choice if you did not exhaust yourself by considering and analyzing a long series of options. Instead of scouring the entire Internet and nearby stores in search of the perfect car radio, ask your friend if he is happy with his? If he is happy, then you will be happy too.

High cost effect

Imagine that you are sitting in an expensive restaurant, you are already full, but you feel obligated to order dessert. This is the “high-cost effect” - if a lot of time, money, and effort have already been spent, then it’s too late to go back. We often agree to a more expensive and not very profitable deal if we have previously spent energy and money on this matter, which is not always a wise decision.

I've already spent a lot. What's the difference now?!

Advice: Don't take too much into account what happened. The time and money have already been spent anyway, and the smart thing to do would be to stop throwing it away any further. Look at things rationally, this way you will avoid serious mental discomfort in the future - admitting your mistake.

Tendency to confirm hypotheses

To confirm a theory, it is better not to prove it, but to question it.
Many people, in support of their opinion, cite only those facts that really confirm it, forgetting about others. This tendency to confirm hypotheses can also be seen in decision making.

Sometimes our decision is influenced by some kind of “predecision”. For example, when planning an evening, we first collect information about the possibility of going to the cinema. And in the end, we will most likely go to the cinema without even considering other alternatives.

Psychological experiment: There are four cards, on one side of which one letter is drawn, and on the other - a number. They lie on the table in the following order: D, A, 2, 5. The subject is informed that the card with the letter D has the number 5 on the other side. By checking this information, the subject is convinced that this is indeed the case - the theory is confirmed. But no one talked about which letter was on the back of the card with the number 5. When trying to find a second card with the letter D, 80% of the subjects opened the one with the number 5, although there was no indication of this. What is evident is pure tendentious thinking.

Advice: when making a decision, take into account only the facts, and be able to question your own or imposed beliefs.

Is the bitterness of defeat stronger than the joy of victory?

What's better - a new car or more spacious housing? When choosing, we try to imagine how we will feel after making this or that decision, and choose what we think will make us happier. However, it is useful to know that our psychology is characterized by a certain “premature regret effect.” We tend to believe that a bad decision can bring more grief than the right choice can bring joy. Therefore, it is sometimes difficult for us to take a serious step in life and we limit ourselves to some minor changes.

Don't look for easy ways. Losing is actually not that bad.

This is also proven by an experiment that showed that most people will only accept a bet with a 50:50 chance of winning if, if they win, they will receive at least twice what they bet. For example, with a bet of 5 euros, they will win 10 euros or more.

Advice: Remember, no matter what happens, the pain or joy that the decision you make will bring you will be less than you imagine. Don't just look for easy roads - no one said that failure will definitely befall you. But, if anything happens, be prepared for it and know that sometimes they happen due to chance, and not just because of our mistakes.

The role of emotions

Emotions help us make quick decisions when it comes to our survival. Fear makes us run away from danger, hostility makes us throw away unhealthy food. But the role of emotions is not limited to this - the part of the brain responsible for emotions is always activated when making decisions, because the brain in this case also takes into account memories of emotions after previously made decisions.

Psychological experiment: A group of people were asked to share a certain amount of money with strangers. It has been observed that people who feel angry and irritated are less generous. The experiment is simple but illustrative - emotions are an integral element of any choice.

Tip: Know that different emotions can influence your decision differently. For example, anger makes us impulsive and risk-taking. Sadness, on the contrary, favors reflection. Depression can lead to completely rash choices. Even lack of sleep can affect your decision making. It has been noticed that when gambling, a sleep-deprived person is more prone to risk and analyzes the possible gain more than the risk of losing.

If you are under the influence of strong emotions at the time of making a decision, it is better to turn to someone for advice.

Think with your own head...

Even the most independent people can be influenced by authority or simply by the opinion of a group of people, if they are part of this group.

Psychological experiment: Stanley Milgram from Yale University (USA) “forced” experimental volunteers to “punish” an imaginary criminal sitting behind translucent glass with electric discharges. The goal was to test how far people could go in neglecting their sense of compassion under the influence of authoritative influence - almost everyone, at the insistence of the presenter, increased the voltage of the discharge until the “criminal” lost consciousness (feignedly, of course).

Advice: If in this situation it seems to you that you do not bear any responsibility for the decision made, analyze the situation, maybe it just seems like this to you.

..but also trust others

We usually think that it is better to make a decision ourselves, but psychologists have proven that such a decision will bring less satisfaction. We need our decision to be emotionally colored by an outside opinion. That is, in the matter of making a choice, as in everything else, we need psychological support.

Psychological experiment: Ann McGill from the University of Chicago asked one group of subjects to make a choice between objects, the name of each of which was also supplemented with four adjectives, while another group of people made the same choice without having any description of these objects in front of them. A follow-up survey showed that the first group of participants received greater satisfaction from the choice. In the second group, after making a decision, people were bothered by thoughts that perhaps they could have chosen something better.

Tip: Listen to the authoritative opinions of others about the items of your choice. As soon as you collect a sufficient number of answers to the questions What are these objects, a certain emotional aura will appear around each of them, after which your subconscious itself will incline you to one choice or another.

Sometimes there are situations in life when you can completely rely on the opinion of another person, if he is much more competent than you in this matter. Figuratively speaking, let the doctor decide for you how to treat you, and let your taster friend choose the wine in the restaurant.

Subconscious hint...

If you think too long, you are more likely to make mistakes.
The principle of weighing all the pros and cons in some particularly difficult situations can be an overwhelming task for your mind. In such cases, the subconscious will instantly complete the intellectual task. Based on a lifetime of experience and our deepest instincts, it is able to evaluate all alternatives in a split second and make the right decision.

So, in some very difficult situations, if your mind gets lost in the abyss of facts and arguments in favor of this or that choice, just stop thinking and follow the dictates of your heart.

But here you also need to be careful, as mentioned above, if you are in a state of strong emotional arousal, the subconscious may “make a mistake,” that is, follow the lead of emotions. Do not confuse a decision made “in the heat of the moment” with one made “at the behest of the heart.”

Change your point of view

Experiment: There are two groups of participants. Appeal to participants from the first group: “You receive 50 euros, 30 of them you can save, for the remaining 20 we offer you to play, with them you can win another 50.”

Address to the participants of the second group: “You get 50 euros, but you can lose 20 of them by playing with them, although if you’re lucky, you might get another 50.”

As a result, 72% of participants from the first group and 37% from the second agreed to risk twenty.

I think you yourself have already drawn a conclusion from this situation: always analyze “in what sauce” the information is presented to you.

Source: Italian magazine Focus.

What influences the choice? The main reasons for loss of determination

It would seem that everything is extremely clear. A person is afraid to choose something because of excessive responsibility or, conversely, due to a lack of desire to take it upon himself. But everything is not as simple as it seems.

After all, a person accustomed to responsibility or its absence will simply make a decision or refuse to do so. He will not doubt, think or worry. Accordingly, in addition to such a personality quality as responsibility, there are other factors that contribute to the loss of determination. It is precisely these that psychologists attribute to the reasons why a person cannot understand how to make the right choice in life.

Psychologists list the following as the main reasons for loss of determination:

the opinions of others, norms and traditions accepted in society;
patterns present in consciousness, stereotypes;
various restrictions, both voluntary and not dependent on the will of a person;
experience of making wrong decisions, lack of self-confidence;
fears, anxieties, worries;
lack of a clear understanding of one’s own aspirations, desires, and goals.

Each of these factors, even alone, can influence the choice a person makes. If these reasons appear together, a person cannot make a choice for a very long time, he is tormented by doubts. Moreover, making a decision is very difficult for him and, as a rule, it becomes erroneous.

Does a person have a choice?

To some extent, a person’s maturation is a movement, a progress from the feeling of choice, from the value of choosing, to the ability to perceive.

Man is the only creature who has been granted such freedom. And this is where the dilemma lies for the time being: a person cannot simultaneously choose and perceive. Or there is a feeling of choice and a person chooses what to perceive - this, this, or this, that, or the other. Or there is a feeling of perception - and in this there is no feeling of choice at all, but there is perception.

The feeling of choice gives illusory freedom. This is the freedom to “create” in a sense of separation from all life. The feeling of perception, on the contrary, is a feeling of unity with existence, and in this there is absolutely no sense of preference or choice. In this, the very possibility of an alternative disappears.

A person holds on to the opportunity to choose, to prefer, for the sole reason - this seems to a person to be identical to the feeling of freedom. Choice seems like freedom to a person. Lack of choice seems like slavery to a person. And this feeling is not entirely false; there is a certain amount of freedom in choice - only it is fleeting, fleeting. This feeling is as fleeting as any thought. It is as fleeting as any emotional state associated with experiencing some hormonal intensity.

But what if by simply directing your attention to the source of your perception, to what is now perceiving, and staying there and allowing yourself to melt into it, you can discover that which does not need to be chosen. That which is free from the very feeling of choice, that which is free from the need to want, choose, prefer, desire. That which is free from all this without even giving it up. The place where you are so full of the feeling of life that not a single phenomenon or preference is simply capable of adding or taking anything away from you.

What else could this be called, if not freedom? Ultimate freedom - freedom from freedom itself...

When there is nothing to take away from you, and whatever is taken away will not make you less. When you have nothing to add, and whatever comes to you will not make you fuller.

This is the feeling of Home. It's a feeling of peace. It's a feeling of completeness. This can be called a feeling of emptiness - in any case, no name can reflect this.

You've been working towards this for so long. You have experienced so much. Perhaps something is still waiting for you ahead. But despite all this, you are here now. And right now, just being here is completely enough for you. Just to be here and feel it, feel it, penetrate into this some kind of silent sensation, marinating you with its immensity.

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An example of the negative impact of the reasons for loss of determination on the choice of profession

What does this look like in everyday life? For example, you have to choose a profession. The teenager cannot decide on anything, although he attends various orientation courses. He does not show enthusiasm, and only shrugs his shoulders to all questions and suggestions from adults.

As a rule, in this situation, in the child’s mind, choosing from the available options is tantamount to a “dream funeral.” He may want to become a musician or an artist, an astronaut, a military man or a surgeon, but he chooses from professions that have nothing to do with his idea of the future.

Accordingly, his choice is influenced by the following factors:

restrictions - a small provincial town in which there are no necessary educational institutions, the desired profession is not relevant, and there is no money to go anywhere;
the opinion of relatives - the child is ridiculed, urged to stop “having his head in the clouds”, they give him as an example his classmates who do not strive to “catch a pie in the sky”;
stereotypes of thinking - for example, the belief that for a military career you need a father-general, for a conservatory - blat, for a painting academy - high-ranking parents;
fears - loss of parental support, the likelihood of failure, fear of loneliness, lack of money and new places;
negative experiences of others, own mistakes and failures - perhaps the teenager participated in some competition and did not receive recognition;
lack of self-confidence - lack of the necessary knowledge, skills, a vague idea of the procedure and what will be required to study the desired specialty, doubt in one’s talent.

This is an example of a situation in which it is necessary to overcome the reasons for indecision and choose not what others want, but your own dream. None of the reasons for indecision in this case is objective or insurmountable.

Life's path is a constant choice

“The right choice in reality does not exist - there is only the choice made and its consequences,” Elchin Safarli.

I think everyone will agree with the idea that the path of life is a constant choice. After all, every day we are faced with the problem of choice hundreds of times. We have to make decisions: what to eat, what to wear, what to spend money on,...? Every person tries to make the right choice so as not to regret it later. But as Elchin Safarli wrote: “The right choice in reality does not exist - there is only the choice made and its consequences.” I completely agree with him, since in the life of each of us there are many choices, but there are no good or bad ones. Every choice we make creates its own consequences, a different, unique world. Every life deserves to be lived, every path deserves to be walked. It is important for a person to find his own path along which he will continue no matter what, to find his purpose and place in life.

To begin with, I would like to give an example from the movie “The Matrix”. The main character Neo, also known as Thomas Anderson, had to choose to drink the red capsule in order to learn an important secret that the world in which he lived is just an illusion, but in fact the world is in ruins, which was created by a computer using people as Charger. Life, now Neo, is connected with the secret of the Matrix. But the main character could choose a blue capsule, after drinking which he would wake up and continue his life as an engineer at a computer company. In this case, the hacker Neo defeats the engineer Thomas Anderson, because... he has long been tormented by the question: “What is the Matrix?” Later, Neo understands the horror of what is happening, he wants to go back, but there is no way back.

Thus, this film shows that the choice depends on the interests, aspirations and worldview of a person; and we also understand that the choice made cannot be changed in any way, no matter how much you want it.

Also in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment,” the theme of choice is the main one. The main character sooner or later faces a choice: to die or to live, acting against his conscience? He committed crimes out of hopelessness, despair, fear of poverty, and not because of cruelty and malicious intent. Rodion Raskolnikov could continue to live in poverty, thereby not committing crimes, but he made a different choice, justifying himself by saying that “if a strong personality killed a nonentity who was of no benefit to anyone, she thereby made everyone happy.”

Also, the theme of choice is clearly visible in Sonechka Marmeladova. If she had not become a girl of easy virtue, her family would have died of hunger. But love for one's neighbor deprives it of even such a way out as death. To help her stepmother and her children, Sonya actually kills herself as a person, but miraculously maintains her purity. Her crime is justified by Christian love for people, readiness for self-sacrifice, unlike Raskolnikov. Rodion Raskolnikov's sister Dunya also faces a choice: to marry Luzhin without loving him, which means deliberately dooming herself to a life devoid of joy. She decides to take this step for the same reason as Sonya - to pull her family out of poverty, to help her brother complete his education at the university.

Of course, life is a constant choice. And it is always important to remember that every action we take, every choice we make can affect and change the future. And how correct the decision is, how correct the message is from a moral point of view - how bright our future will be.

Alina Nakhaeva

Student of MAOU Gymnasium No. 4, Kansk

The material was published in UNPRESS

Example of Positive Influence

If completely objective reasons prevent you from making a decision, then you should not fight them. What could it be? Insurmountable factors that a person cannot change.

The list of such reasons for indecision most clearly demonstrates the choice of profession. For example, a teenager dreams of becoming an opera singer, so he hesitates to enter a pedagogical university or culinary college.

It is worth giving up trying to make a career on the opera stage for the following reasons:

limitations - no hearing, no voice of the required range and timbre;
the opinion of loved ones - the teenager is told about the lack of artistry and charisma;
stereotypes - the child did not study at a music school or in solfeggio classes;
fears are a waste of time, failure in exams, due to which the year will be “lost”;
negative experience - singing karaoke did not delight the listeners;
uncertainty - no idea of one’s own worth in the desired profession.

Thus, having analyzed the reasons for indecision, a person understands that his right choice will be the one that circumstances dictate to him.

Methodology "for" and "against". How not to miss anything?

Choices and decisions must be based on something. In other words, before committing an important act, you need to carefully weigh all the pros and cons. Every person, without a doubt, knows about this.

How to do this so as not to miss anything? Very simple. Psychologists advise arming yourself with sheets of paper and a pencil. On one sheet of paper you should write: “What do I get?” The title on the other should accordingly be about human loss. There should be exactly as many such sheets as the number of solution options available to a person. If there are a lot of them, then psychologists advise choosing sheets of different colors, labeling each one with your intended choice, and hanging them on the wall. You need to secure a pencil nearby.

Of course, you don't need to fill out the sheets at once. You shouldn’t agonize over the pros and cons. This is done gradually, the necessary thoughts themselves arise in the head, since the human brain works on the task even when the consciousness is occupied by other questions and problems.

In the process of filling out the sheets, solution options that are unnecessary for a person will disappear. As soon as it becomes obvious that one of the choices is not correct, its sheet should be removed from the wall. In the end, the solution to the issue that is optimal will remain.

How to use the technique if there are several options left?

It is not always the case that when using the “pros” and “cons” methodology, you are left with a couple of sheets of paper listing the pros and cons of a certain solution option. Sometimes it turns out that there are quite a lot of papers hanging on the wall.

This happens especially often if a person chooses a job after successfully passing interviews in different companies.

Psychologists advise in such a situation to complicate the technique. You need to add others to the existing sheets, on which you should write down the pros and cons of this option, which will be relevant in the future. The time intervals depend on how serious the choice has to be made. If we are talking about the place of work, then sheets marked “6 months”, “1 year”, “a couple of years” are enough.

The main thing is not to indulge in fantasies, not to get carried away and not to imagine unnecessary things. The pros and cons must be completely realistic. They must also be close to the person. For example, in a year a person will be able to spend a vacation traveling around Europe. In two years, buy a motorcycle or make repairs. That is, you need to make a forecast based on existing realities; you should not write as a plus that in a couple of years a person will become a department head or a store director. Career growth is a possibility, not an advantage that will certainly be achieved. The sheets with minuses are filled out in the same way.

If it is difficult to cope with this task alone, you need to invite friends to visit. With joint efforts, it is sometimes much easier to find a suitable solution to any problem.

Paradoxes of the psychology of choice

You can get confused trying to make the best choice. This is what maximalists do. They try not to make a mistake in anything and choose the very best. For example, when buying an iPhone, they look for the most sophisticated model and at the most affordable price. Alas, their hopes are often not justified: the claims are too big.

But less demanding minimalists in the same situation are the winners. After all, an ordinary gadget will suit them, as long as it works properly. This level of aspiration is easily satisfied. To a maximalist, what he gave up will always seem better. Therefore, as A. Camus advised, you need to find the strength in yourself to choose what is best and not deviate from the decision made.

Conclusion

No matter how difficult the choice is, refusing it is fraught with more depressing consequences. The heart will be burdened with regrets about unused chances: unexpressed feelings, unborn children, unfulfilled work...

It is impossible to rewind lost time. Unfulfilled opportunities, as a rule, no longer appear. But the feeling of guilt towards oneself remains.

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Do you need to consult with other people?

How to make the right choice in life? Need to think about everything connected with it alone? Or should you discuss the problem with someone?

Psychologists believe that discussing important issues, including those that require choice, with other people is necessary. However, one should not confuse discussion and listening to advice with shifting responsibility for decisions to others and with blindly following other people's instructions.

In how to make an important choice without making a mistake, listening to outside opinions is extremely useful. It’s not for nothing that people say: “One head is good, but two are better.” A person is rarely completely objective and impartial. Discussing an important issue with someone will allow you to look at the problem with different eyes, and can also provoke the emergence of new thoughts.

Self-development

A person who is successful in all respects is distinguished from a mediocre person by only one thing - the desire to improve himself. This can be a constant craving for new knowledge, reading specialized literature, completing trainings and even spiritual development. If you want to live and not exist, constantly develop, learn something new, try, experiment, conquer new heights. Your choice to develop yourself, or lack thereof, will impact every aspect of your life.

The choice of how to live is yours!

Elena,

Basic rules for making the right choice

How to make a choice? A psychologist's advice may be different, since each life situation has its own characteristics and unique nuances. After all, when making a decision, it is important not only to take into account your own opinion, determine the factors influencing it, or understand which option will be better. It is necessary to take into account the realities surrounding a person, his personal and family circumstances, and much more.

In addition to specific advice that is valuable for specific life situations, psychologists also give general recommendations. That is, advice that is applicable in all circumstances and useful in solving any issues.

The basic rules that must be followed in order to make the right choice are:

limitation of the area of responsibility;
collection and analysis of information;
discussion with other people;
the correct formulation of a life question.

Each of these factors is necessary when solving any issue.

Reaction

Your reaction to events influences your life. Observe that to the same event, different people will have different reactions - from indifference to irritation. What matters is not what happened to you, but how you reacted to it, because all impressions, from positive to negative, settle in you. You cannot influence an event, but you can change your attitude and reaction to it. By learning to control your reactions by regulating your mind, you will gain control over your life.

Responsibility and information

How to make the right choice if you do not have complete information about the possible options? Of course not. Techniques that help make decisions based on intuition are used only in extreme situations.

Accordingly, it is important to learn as much as possible about possible options, and the information should be objective and relate to both the present time and the past and future. For example, if you need to choose a place to work, then you need to find out everything about how the company developed, whether it often needs employees, and what its prospects are.

Limiting the area of responsibility is a rule that encourages you not to take on too much or too little. That is, when thinking about choosing something, you don’t need to be overly pessimistic or full of enthusiasm. For example, if we are talking about marriage, one should not be confident that over the years the partner will change under the influence of the one who makes the choice, but one should not deny the person personal development either.

Bread and illusions!

French sociologist and psychologist Gustave Le Bon explained the reasons for this in just two sentences in 1895 in his work Psychology of the Masses: “The crowd has never strived for the truth;
she turns away from evidence that she does not like, and prefers to worship error, if only this error seduces her. He who knows how to mislead the crowd easily becomes its ruler; whoever strives to reason with her always becomes her victim.” Quite reasonable individually, most people are easily suggestible in the masses and, oddly enough, crave submission, but not to anyone, but to a strong leader.

Strong from the crowd's point of view. That is, vendita gonfiabili sportivi to one who will present simple and understandable slogans, appeal to the natural - instincts (for example, aggression).

Reality is complex and does not imply the fulfillment of many of our desires. As a rule, the mind becomes quite accustomed to this “injustice.” But not our feelings, which sit in the unconscious and do not want to know about any restrictions. It is to these passionate voices within each of us that the leader leading the masses appeals.

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How does he do this? The fact is that in the crowd the individuality of each person dissolves. And this is not just a comparison - this is our past. The same thing happened to us when we were an ordinary animal pack. Unconsciously, each of us fears any force and submits to it. The crowd is a force, so we, unwittingly, will follow it and its ideals (even if it does not exist in reality, but looks at us from TV screens, from neighbors’ windows, or simply lives in our imagination). Most are instinctively afraid to stand out from the crowd, to distinguish themselves, and this is understandable: those who went “against everyone” in the past – and even today – faced severe punishment.

What remains for the leader in this situation? That's right: give the crowd what it wants - illusion. The crowd wants to hear what it wants. If a leader begins to doubt his words (which will only indicate that he is not only honest, but also intelligent), says difficult things, or proceeds from a dull reality and its possibilities, he will not only not be listened to, but may even be beaten. There is no need to talk about becoming a crowd favorite. Why are most promises made by elected candidates never kept? Because they were unenforceable in the first place, because the candidates told the crowd what it wanted to hear.

It is on this phenomenon – the craving of the “majority for the opinion of the majority” – that the well-known technique of “inconspicuous” election campaigning is based, when we are told from blue screens about the high ratings of this or that candidate. Where they come from is a question, but they perform their task perfectly: the majority follows the majority and votes for the leading candidate.

A person prefers to follow the tastes of his group, which an experienced election marketing specialist will definitely take advantage of /© Depositphotos

Discussion and formulation

Talking to other people helps you see the problem in a new light. However, you need to carefully approach the choice of interlocutors, otherwise the discussion of the choice may turn into agitation or a furious argument.

In order to talk to someone, you need to clearly formulate the task at hand. After all, otherwise the interlocutor may misunderstand exactly what choice a person needs to make and what he wants to talk about. But clarity of language is necessary not only for discussion, but also for personal reflection. If a person poses a vague question, devoid of specifics, then there will be an incredibly large number of possible solutions. And this will definitely make the choice difficult.

How to make the right choice between two jobs?

The answer seems to be simple, you should go to the place of service where the person is better. What is usually meant by this? Salary, conditions, benefits package, career growth, schedule. It is these criteria that people immediately pay attention to and choose a job in accordance with them.

Without a doubt this is correct. But why then do many people regret their choice? Psychologists believe that when making a decision, not only the obvious side, so to speak, the material one, should be taken into account, but also the one that is rarely thought about - the emotional one.

Work is the place where a person spends most of his time. Accordingly, he should be comfortable, and fulfilling his work duties should bring him joy. Unfortunately, for the vast majority of people this is an unattainable utopia. Why did this happen? Because when making a choice, little things that seemed not particularly significant were not taken into account. For example, team, remoteness, interest in responsibilities.

That is, when choosing between two jobs, you need to imagine yourself in a new place and understand what will be gained and what will be lost. You should not imagine an abstract picture of yourself in the office, but a full weekday from the moment you wake up until you return from work, without forgetting a single detail.

How to do it? Very simple. You need to work in both places, for this there is such a thing as a “probationary period”. After all, not only the employer evaluates the employee at this time, but the person is also looking at the place of work.

As for the methods that facilitate decision-making, the “pros” and “cons” method will be an ideal assistant in choosing.

How not to make a mistake in choosing a lady?

How to choose between two women? This is an incredibly complex question with no single answer.

Psychologists often advise taking into account common interests, social equality, equal education and other similar factors. However, in life it is not so difficult to find a lot of examples of strong, happy marriages, during the conclusion of which not one of the conditions was met.

Of course, you can imagine what life will be like with each of the women in 10, 20 years. Discuss the problem with friends or family, listen to their advice. Analyze the pros and cons of each of the ladies, take into account the families in which they grew up. But all this will never guarantee the right choice when it comes to relationships between people. It is impossible to look into the head and soul of another person. By analyzing and evaluating others, a person actually makes a choice between his own ideas about them.

Maybe if the question arises about choosing between two ladies, this indicates that neither of them is suitable, is not the one and only?

If you still need to choose, it is worth conducting some kind of testing. You need to find yourself in an extreme situation and see how the candidates behave with heart and hand. For example, you can act out a car accident, after which a person is unable to move. But you need to understand that such testing requires time and the creation of an illusion indistinguishable from reality. The first reaction of both ladies will be “love until the grave,” but after a month or two only the one who is not afraid of difficulties will remain. However, will she leave after learning that she was tested? There is no answer to this question.

Does choice affect Fate? Or does Fate know our choice?

Indeed, if we take into account the fact that each person has a specific Fate that he must live, that is, go through a certain series of tests, learn “life lessons,” then it turns out that the choice that a person makes is also determined . Well, how else can he learn a lesson in a relationship if, for example, he does not make a choice in favor of a certain person (with whom in the future, “according to the scenario,” he will have to divorce). It turns out that if a person does not choose, he will avoid some difficult situations and disappointments? Will he change his destiny? Is this really true? Or, to one degree or another, will a person be forced to follow the path that was originally outlined for him?

The theme of Fate and choice raises a lot of questions that cannot be answered so easily. But still, we will try to do it. Our choice (any, in a big or small matter) necessarily affects Fate. And the extent to which we understand and accept our Fate will further depend on how aware we are of this choice (we understand what the consequences may be if we choose this or that condition for our life).

For example, a young girl who dreams of getting married accepts a marriage proposal from a young man whom she has known for a couple of months. Naturally, in such a short period of time it is difficult to find out completely everything about a person, about his habits, preferences, and character traits. When making a choice in favor of marriage and starting a family, such a girl must REALIZE that this marriage can also lead to divorce due to various circumstances. But if she does not think about it when making a choice, then in the future, when Fate shows her her path, she will be extremely disappointed, upset and depressed. But, if she anticipates the situation of a possible break in the relationship, then the blow in the form of divorce will be less painful for her. That is, by saying: “Yes,” she spoke affirmative words not only to her future husband, but also to responsibility for her choice. This means that it will be easier for her, taking into account her mistakes, to build new, stronger relationships in the future. Thus, we can say that choice (conscious or unconscious) influences Fate.

What if, according to Fate, a person is destined to make a certain choice. Well, for example, the choice of a certain profession, which in the future will become fatal in a person’s life (for example, a sports career, where you can often meet disabled people at a young age). And then, it turns out that Fate makes a choice for a person? Indeed, there are life stories where a person was “led” by Higher powers to a certain choice, and this choice in the future could in some unfavorable way affect the person himself. This suggests that such a person needs to learn a lesson that he may not have wanted to learn over several incarnations. And in this life he was faced with the (main) task of working through a specific situation in order to “learn a lesson.”

How to make choices intuitively?

This question is of interest to many, because often people who are stubborn and listen to the voice of the heart, and not to the mind, turn out to be right and achieve success.

Everyone has intuition, but not everyone knows how to perceive it. In order to hear your inner voice, you need to do the following:

sit down;
close eyes;
free your mind from vain thoughts and worries;
speak out loud the available options from which you have to choose.

You need to take breaks between phrases. After voicing them, you should listen to your body, to the sensations in the solar plexus area. If it’s warm and pleasant inside, then the voiced option is good. If it becomes uncomfortable, begins to feel nauseous or feels cold, then the option is bad and there is no need to choose it.

Psychologists advise resorting to intuition not only in the absence of information, the impossibility of discussion, or the presence of equivalent options for something. It is recommended to resort to intuitive analysis in addition to the usual thinking about the upcoming choice. This will give you confidence in its correctness or allow you to notice the error in time.

Text of the book “Psychology of Choice”

Dmitry Leontyev, Elena Ovchinnikova, Elena Rasskazova, Anna Pham Psychology of choice

The book was prepared with the financial support of the Russian Humanitarian Scientific Foundation, project No. 12-36-01050
The publication was carried out with the financial support of the Russian Humanitarian Scientific Foundation, project No. 15-06-06034

Introduction

We don't always choose what we want, but we always do what we choose. The problem of choice has interested me for a long time, and the first unsuccessful attempts to approach this problem are already a quarter of a century old, if you count from the first pilot experiment presented in section 3.1. During this period, the development of the theoretical concept and its experimental substantiation proceeded in parallel and very unevenly, so separating them is not an easy task. In Chapter 2, we tried to present as generally as possible the theoretical concept that serves as the basis for the work carried out, which, on the one hand, is somewhat artificial, but on the other, necessary. In a sense, any theory is forced to present in the form of a single cross-section what has been developed over the years, repeatedly modified along the way.

At the end of the 1980s. I was approached by student Nelly Pilipko, who wanted to write a term paper on the topic of choice, for which there were no ready-made approaches. In the course of planning her research, a method for analyzing argumentation was reinvented (only much later did I come across the letter from B. Franklin quoted at the beginning of section 3.1), which became both exploratory and formative. At the same time, the idea arose that choice is an internal activity, and a classification of three types of choice was developed. Successfully conducted ascertaining and developing experiments have shown, firstly, that by the quantity and quality of arguments one can judge the degree of usefulness and maturity of the choice, and secondly, that building a single space of argumentation is, if not the main, then a very important aspect of the activity of choice and, thirdly, that the skills of this activity can be successfully taught. The thesis on the vital, even pressing material of choosing topics for term papers by third-year students turned out to be very interesting and after some time was published in a leading journal. Several years later, these ideas were developed in the equally original graduate research of E.V. Shelobanova based on the material of career guidance choice of schoolchildren (see section 7.2). In it, the direct subject of analysis and the object of formative influences was the work of constructing possible futures as the consequences of a particular choice. These two studies, which were published and attracted the attention of colleagues, laid down the main ideas regarding the understanding of choice as an activity. At the same time, the complexity and “piecemeal” nature of research in this area for a long time did not allow the development of research on a wide front.

Only in the last decade, when a whole group of young scientists interested in this issue was formed, and the problem of choice itself found a place in the concept of personal potential, was it possible to give new impetus to this research. In the dissertation research of E.Yu. Mandrikova (2006) managed, by developing a method for analyzing argumentation, to experimentally validate S. Maddi’s theoretical idea about the existence of two choice strategies – the choice of immutability and the choice of uncertainty (section 4.2). The idea of strategies was further developed and tested on various materials in the research of E.I. Rasskazovaya (sections 4.3, 4.4). In addition, empirical results clearly indicated the existence of two discrete types of choice, one of which (personal, or autonomous, choice) fully corresponds to the theoretical model of internal activity, and the second (spontaneous, or impersonal, choice) is its reduced, inferior version. In the same study, the idea of a methodology for assessing the subjective quality of choice arose, which in the next year or two was brought to a working version (Leontyev, Mandrikova, Fam,

2007;
see section 3.2, which includes the latest structural modeling data obtained with the participation of E.N. Aspen). This technique contributed to the finalization of the key idea that how a
subject chooses is more important than what
he
chooses. In turn, from this idea the position on the subjective construction of choice was born. Thanks to this technique, in the thesis work of A.Kh. Fama conducted a study in which the two mentioned types of choice stood out very clearly, and at the same time a lot of data was obtained on personality variables that correlate with one and the other type of choice (see section 5.3).

At the same time, the idea of readiness to choose—a specific personal competence based on certain personality characteristics—began to take shape. This idea was tested and tested in an applied orientation study devoted to the implementation of educational profiling in high schools. It was carried out with the support of the Federal Target Program for the Development of Education in 2008 with the participation of G.V. Ivanchenko, E.Yu. Mandrikova and E.I. Rasskazovaya (see section 7.1). In parallel, G.V. Ivanchenko with the participation of E.N. Osin conducted a study of professional self-determination of university graduates (section 7.3).

The most recent studies described in the book formed the content of A.Kh.’s dissertation research. Pham (2015; see Chapter 6). They were based on the idea of comparing choice situations of different scale, or level, which we conventionally designated as “fateful” and “everyday” choices (in a number of cases, an intermediate option was also distinguished). As we expected, “fateful” elections differed in their characteristics from “everyday” ones. In particular, they turned out to be almost unrelated to stable personality variables, which is in good agreement with the ideas about choice in existential philosophy and psychology. Several studies were also carried out by N.V. Rasskazovaya, who developed and deepened earlier studies (sections 4.3, 4.4, 5.1, 5.2).

Selection processes have taken a significant place in the concept of personal potential (Leontyev D.A.,

2006
b
, 2011
b, c),
which became a kind of development of the “Rubicon model” of H. Heckhausen, J. Kuhl and P. Gollwitzer. In the concept of personal potential, which is understood as the potential for self-regulation, that is, the systemic organization of the individual responsible for successful self-regulation in various spheres of life, three intersecting but not coinciding subsystems are distinguished: the potential for achievement, the potential for self-determination and the potential for conservation. Self-determination potential characterizes an individual’s ability to successfully navigate the gap between achieving one goal (or abandoning it) and setting a new goal. In fact, it is the readiness to choose that turns out to be an integral characteristic of this subsystem of personal potential.

A significant part of these studies was brought together in a large article by the authors of this book (Leontyev, Mandrikova, Rasskazova, Fam,

2011).
This book, in fact, is a greatly expanded (10 times) version of it. It covers a long period, although its main content describes research from the most recent years. Its task is, based on existing theoretical approaches to the problem of choice and experimental research in this area, to build a theoretical model capable of integrating and differentiating various types of choice, both simple and complex, both rational and irrational (the quintessence of this model is contained in the articles : Leontyev,
2014
a, b),
and also empirically test this model, revealing its capabilities. The book should be considered as an intermediate, but, of course, not the final result. She presents the previously scattered studies as a new holistic, theoretically, methodologically and empirically based approach to the problem of choice, the main fruits of which, it seems, are yet to come.

The contribution of the co-authors can be divided only conditionally, since the entire content of the book was the product of regular discussions in the general ideological and conceptual field. YES. Leontyev was the author or co-author of all chapters and sections, with the exception of 3.3, 4.3, 4.4, 5.1, 5.2; E.Yu. Ovchinnikova (Mandrikova) contributed to the writing of chapter 1, sections 3.2, 4.2, 7.1; E.I. Rasskazova was the author or co-author of sections 2.3, 4.3, 4.4, 5.1, 5.2, 7.1; OH. Fam – chapter 1, sections 3.2, 3.3, 5.3, chapter 6. The circle of authors is not limited to the four names on the cover; In addition to them, the co-authors of certain sections of the book were G.V. Ivanchenko (7.1.1, 7.3), E.N. Osin (3.2.3, 6.2, 7.3), N.V. Pilipko (3.1), E.V. Shelobanov (7.2).

I am grateful not only to the co-authors of this long-term project, but also to numerous students over the years, whose work, although not always leading to clear results, supported the movement that led to the writing of this book. And although it is not the first product of our research team formed over the past 10–12 years, it is the first large-scale final work of the International Laboratory of Positive Psychology of Personality and Motivation at the National Research University Higher School of Economics created in 2014 on its basis. All members of the laboratory were involved in this book to one degree or another, to whom the authors express their sincere gratitude.

The problem of choice becomes especially relevant in difficult times, times of instability and unpredictability. Books are unlikely to help in these cases, but we never stop learning to choose and urge us to be attentive to what and how we choose in our lives.

YES. Leontyev

Chapter 1 Approaches to understanding and studying choice in psychology and the human sciences

In psychology and philosophy, the problem of choice has recently become more and more relevant, although research on this topic is not yet systematic, key concepts have not been established, and key definitions continue to be discussed.

Psychological works devoted directly to the problem of choice are quite few, especially when compared with the number of works on decision making. Most works on decision making are based on the implicit assumption that it is the same as choice, only terminologically it is a more strict, correct, scientifically operationalized concept (for example: Kornilov,

2003), while the word “choice” is loaded with philosophical and everyday connotations.

Almost the only generally accepted characteristic of choice, which is pointed out by various authors, is that it acts as a means of resolving uncertainty (for example: Naumova,

1988).
One of the leading sociologists of our time, N. Luhmann, relying on the concept of decision making, considers simplification and reduction of complexity to be a characteristic feature, and the uncertainty of the future as the only invariant of decision-making processes (Luhmann,
1994;
Luhmann,
2004, S. 31, 45). Making a choice leads to a reduction in the space of alternatives to one realizable one, to a decrease in degrees of freedom. Uncertainty means that at the point of choice, actions are not unambiguously predetermined. What we usually consider to be the only, self-evident and uncontested way of acting is extremely rarely such in reality.

Otherwise, there are significant differences in the very basic understandings and definitions of choice. The following main directions in approaches to the problem of choice can be distinguished:

• choice as an essential property of a person (in the context of philosophical anthropology);

• choice as a conscious moral self-determination in the space of ethical dilemmas (in the context of ethics);

• choice as making a rational decision (in the context of cognitive psychology);

• choice as a manifestation of personal characteristics, motivation and level of development (in the context of philosophical anthropology and personality psychology);

• choice as an existential act, the meaning of which lies not so much in the decision made, but in the process of choice itself and the position occupied by the subject in this process (in the context of existential philosophy and psychology).

Along with these areas, we will pay special attention in the review to multidimensional models of choice, covering many aspects of this phenomenon and suggesting its empirical operationalization.

1.1. Philosophical and ethical ideas about choice

The study of the problem of choice in psychology goes back to ancient Greek thinkers, Christian ideologists and philosophers of later times, who considered choice primarily in the context of free will, as well as human resolution of moral conflicts and moral dilemmas.
1.1.1.
Understanding choice in philosophy The formulation of the problem of choice can be found already in Aristotle (384–322 BC). In his opinion, choice “is most closely connected with virtue and, even more than actions, allows us to judge morals” (Aristotle,

1984, p.
99). At the same time, he refers his judgments only to conscious choice (pro heneron haireton), emphasizing that this concept is narrower than the concept of voluntary, relates choice to what “depends on us”, and criticizes the views of those who connect choice with attraction, desire or individual opinion. “Attraction is the opposite of conscious choice <…> Attraction is associated with pleasure and suffering, and conscious choice has nothing to do with either one” (ibid.,
p. 100).

Aristotle’s distinction between choice and opinion is interesting: “What we are depends on whether we choose good or evil, and not on what opinions we have” (ibid.).

Thus, in his “Nicomachean Ethics,” choice is clearly associated with practical behavioral implementation, but appears as a complexly mediated, rather than impulsive, process.
“Apparently, not the same people make the best choice and form the best opinion, but some form an opinion quite well, but due to depravity they choose the wrong thing” ( ibid
., p. 101).

Aristotle elaborates on the connection between choice and decision making. Having assumed this connection, he develops the idea further, noting that we make decisions only about what depends on us. “Decisions are about what happens, usually in a certain way, but whose outcome is not clear and where the uncertainty lies” ( ibid.

, With.
102). Showing that decisions relate not to ends, but to means, Aristotle concludes his analysis by defining conscious choice as “a decision-making desire for what depends on us” (ibid.,
p. 103).
Aristotle's concept of decision is almost synonymous with the concept of choice and is opposed to the concept of opinion; It is characteristic that in the modern cognitive paradigm, decision-making turns out to be closer to the concept of opinion; its definition no longer includes the connection with personal causality and with active realization, emphasized by Aristotle. Aristotle formulates the inextricable connection, in modern language, between the cognitive and existential sides of choice: “Both without prudence and without virtue, a conscious choice will not be correct, for the second creates a goal, and the first allows you to perform actions leading to the goal” ( ibid
., p. 190).

In the Eudemian Ethics, Aristotle expresses similar thoughts in slightly different words. Important, in particular, is his statement that “a choice is neither true nor false, nor is there an opinion about the things we ought to do, when we consider whether we ought to do or not do something” (Aristotle,

2005, p. 65).

Thus, Aristotle unambiguously connects choice with consciousness and prudence, but subordinates the cognitive component to the ethical-motivational one; It is with this latter, and not with the formation of an opinion, that he relates the “quality” of choice. Aristotle's decision-making practically coincides with choice, in contrast to opinion. Finally, Aristotle consistently connects choice with the active active ability to perform an act and with control over the action, that is, with what today is called “subjectivity” (see: Leontyev D.A.,

2010).
Conscious choice is “opinion together with desire, when, after deliberation, they are united in action” (Aristotle,
2005, p. 69).

He attached great importance to the conditions and purpose of the act, o (Aristotle,

1984, p. 104). According to Aristotle, the source of actions lies in the person himself (except for those cases when they are committed involuntarily or out of ignorance); therefore, it depends on him whether to commit them or not. The difference between conscious choice and desire (violent impulse) lies in its “restraint”, the absence of connection with pleasure and suffering. Unlike desire, only that which a person considers dependent on himself is subject to conscious choice (and not eternal, not changeable, and not random). A conscious choice always concerns what a person has an idea of as good, but it can be either vicious or virtuous, and in the latter case it is praised for being true (as opposed to an opinion being praised for being true).

Over the next two millennia, the problem of choice disappeared from the sphere of philosophical analysis, and philosophers even returned to discussing general issues of free will only in the 16th and 17th centuries. The problem of choice itself was touched upon by I. Kant (Kant,

1965), who tried to find common ground between the determinism of human behavior, on the one hand, and the possibility of free choice of his actions, on the other.
Later, a follower of I. Kant, the philosopher W. Windelbandt (Windelbandt,
1905) considered several bases of choice: random or constant motives, cognitions and real feelings or imagination and “imagined feelings.” In his opinion, choice can be considered as a free act only if it is based on permanent motives that reflect the essential characteristics of a particular person, and not on situational, random motives.

The first detailed analysis of the problem of choice in the human sciences in modern times was made more than a century and a half ago by Soren Kierkegaard in one of his main books “Either - Or”, which was published in Russian under the title “Pleasure and Duty” (Kierkegaard,

1994).
Since then, very little has been written about choice that can be compared with this profound and brilliant analysis. It is characteristic that it brings to the fore the non-rational nature of choice, its irreducibility to processes of evaluation and weighing of alternatives. Kierkegaard sets an existential perspective to approach the problem of choice not as a separate mental act or rational decision, but as a situation in which the personality as a whole is inevitably involved. The choice or avoidance of it has consequences for a person’s entire life and for his Self,
significantly beyond the scope of the sometimes private issue that is the subject of the decision.
“The choice itself is of decisive importance for the internal content of the personality: when making a choice, it is completely filled with what was chosen, but if it does not choose, it withers and dies” (ibid.,
p. 234). The meaning of choice, thus, turns out to be noticeably broader than the situation of choice itself; it is not only in the essence of the answer to the question, in the decision made on a specific occasion, but also in how exactly the individual is involved in finding the answer, in what way this answer is obtained.

“What is chosen is in the closest connection with the chooser,” Kierkegaard further says, “and at the very time when a person faces a life dilemma: either - or,

life itself continues to carry him along its course, so that the more he hesitates in deciding the question of choice, the more difficult and complex this choice becomes, despite the tireless activity of thinking, through which a person hopes to more clearly and definitely distinguish between concepts separated “or – or “<…> The internal movement of the personality does not leave time for experiments of thought” (
ibid.
, p. 235).
Here Kierkegaard emphasizes that we solve the problem of choice not as an intellectual task, we are involved in a flow that carries us according to its own laws, and it is choice that is the key to the ability to get off this trajectory. And if a person “forgets to take into account the usual course of life, then a moment will finally come when there can be no more talk of a choice, not because the last one has been made, but because the moment for him has been missed, in other words, she chose for the person herself.” life, and he lost himself, his “I”” (ibid.).
Kierkegaard emphasizes the dynamism of choice. The minute of choice is very important, he says, because “in the next minute I will no longer be so free to choose, since I will have already experienced something, and this experience will slow down my path back to the point of choice. If anyone thinks that it is possible to renounce one’s personality even for a moment, or that it is possible to actually suspend the vital activity of the individual, he is sorely mistaken. The personality leans in one direction or another even earlier than the choice has actually been made, and if a person postpones it, this choice is made by itself, in addition to the will and consciousness of the person, under the influence of the dark forces of human nature" ( ibid.

, With.
236). In his other work, “Fear and Trembling” (Kierkegaard,
1993), S. Kierkegaard noted that every decision a person makes can lead him into the future or keep him in the past; thus, a person is free to choose the direction of his choice.

Kierkegaard distinguishes two types of choice, which he associates with the two types of personality he described: aesthetic and ethical. In the first case, this is a direct choice based on tastes and preferences in the spirit of the proverb “Fish seeks where it is deeper, and man – where it is better.” The choice itself is determined by the characteristics of the alternatives being compared, and therefore is relatively predictable, and at the same time situational, and can easily be replaced by another. “So, if a young girl follows the choice of her heart, then no matter how beautiful this choice is, it cannot be called a true choice: it is made directly” (ibid.,

With.
239). In ethical choice, the act of choice itself, its quality, is of decisive importance: what is important is not so much what is
chosen, but
how
.
In it, “the individual manifests all his strength and strengthens his individuality, and, in case of a wrong choice, this same energy will help him come to the realization of his mistake” (ibid.).
To err is human, we make mistakes and we correct our mistakes. But we can correct our mistakes only if we accept responsibility for our choices.

The very state of genuine (ethical) choice is beneficial for a person, regardless of what exactly is chosen. “This moment can be compared with the solemn moment of knighting a squire - the human soul, as it were, receives a blow from above, is ennobled and made worthy of eternity. And this blow does not change a person, does not turn him into another being, but only awakens and condenses his consciousness, and thereby forces a person to become himself" (Kierkegaard,

1994, p.
252). A person becomes himself, realizing himself as a chooser. Through the awakening of consciousness in the act of choice, he awakens, “collects himself” (Mamardashvili,
1997).
Thus, for Kierkegaard, choice is not a technical operation that serves to solve a situational problem, but something that has the highest value in itself. “Decide only to make a choice, and you will see for yourself,” says Kierkegaard, “that this is the only means of making life truly beautiful, the only means of saving yourself and your soul, finding the whole world and enjoying its benefits without abuse” (Kirkegaard,
1994, p. 253).
We are, of course, talking specifically about ethical choice, the basis of which is the free decision of the individual, but not about direct, aesthetic choice. “Spontaneity, like a chain, tied man to everything earthly, but now the spirit strives to clarify itself and extract the human personality from this dependence so that it can recognize itself in its eternal meaning” ( ibid.,
p. 266).

Kierkegaard directly connects the breaking of this dependence with taking responsibility for oneself and choosing oneself, which regenerates a person. “The choice has been made, and man has found himself, mastered himself, that is, he has become a free, conscious person, to whom the absolute difference - or knowledge - of good and evil is revealed. Until a person has chosen himself, this difference is hidden from him" ( ibid.

, With.
305–306). The esthetician, according to Kierkegaard, does not choose himself: “As long as a person lives an exclusively aesthetic life, his entire personality is the fruit of chance” ( ibid.
, p. 339), and his life task becomes “the cultivation of his random individuality in all its paradoxicality and irregularity "
(ibid.,
p. 340).
The life task of the ethicist “becomes himself: he strives for ennoblement, regulation, education, comprehensive development of his “I”, in other words, for balance and harmony of the soul, which is the fruit of personal self-improvement. The life goal of such a person also becomes himself, his own “I”, but not arbitrary or accidental, but definite, determined by his own choice, which made him a life task - himself in all his concreteness” ( ibid
., p. 341).

An interesting interpretation of this idea is offered by S. Iyengar, stating that we find ourselves in the evolution of the choice process, and not just its results (Iyengar,

2010, p.
110). “We can say that we strive to achieve a state of homeostasis through a feedback loop between identity and choice: If I am this, then I must choose this; if I choose this, then I apparently am” (Ibid.,
p. 109).
T.V. Kornilova and her co-authors also, in agreement with this, state that in acts of choice a person is guided not only by anticipating outcomes in the development of the situation, but also by who he will become as a result of his choice (Kornilova, Chumakova, Kornilov, Novikova,
2010, p. 12), but this idea is not developed in more detail.

Fiction and cinema have offered many convincing illustrations of how a choice made in a critical situation transforms the personality as a whole. Among them are “Faust” by I. Goethe, “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky, W. Allen’s film “Cassandra’s Dreams”.

The French intuitionist philosopher A. Bergson considered choice as a manifestation of human free will, a personal, volitional act performed in the plane of consciousness, but determined by what lies outside this plane: “A genuine situation of choice, in which several vital alternatives have come together, is fundamentally beyond one’s control.” rational calculation and in general is fundamentally unsolvable in the very horizontal plane of life where it arose and manifested itself. To make a choice, a transition of consciousness into another dimension, into another – vertical – plane is necessary” (Bergson,

1992, p. 303). According to Bergson, awareness of one's intention and consequences of an action changes the personality itself, as a result of which the alternatives from which the subject has to choose are, by definition, unequal due to the movement of consciousness forward along the time axis. According to A. Bergson, choice, which embodies the act of decision-making, personal action and free will, is determined by the entire previous life path of the individual and personal development. Making a personal, free choice becomes possible only due to the fact that it is predetermined by the entire life path of a person preceding the choice, the experience accumulated by him in the process of development.

The concept of choice occupies a key place in the works of existential philosophers of the 19th and 20th centuries, who consider this phenomenon in the aspect of freedom - the determinism of human actions, risk, uncertainty and individual responsibility for one’s own life. Despite the heterogeneity of this direction and the often contradictory positions of different authors, it is possible to identify a general vector for considering the problem of choice: the absence of predetermined human nature (“existence precedes essence”); a person’s formation of himself and the tragedy and irreversibility of this process.

In the works of K.T. Jaspers, the problem of choice acts simultaneously as a philosophical problem, a question of faith and one of the key problems of psychotherapy. According to his teaching, in order to make a genuine choice (choosing the “image of God” in oneself), it is necessary to turn to religious or philosophical faith. Polemicizing with supporters of psychoanalysis, the author emphasized the role of the free, existential choice of a person who comes to psychotherapy: “With all the advice to the patient, the desire to help him look at his real situation, at his personal world and at himself, the most important thing remains the patient’s decisive Yes or No” ( quoted from: Rutkevich,

1997, p. 29); The task of the psychotherapist is only to lead the patient in the process of communication to the idea of the need for such a choice.

M. Heidegger defined choice as a universal structure of factual existence, carried out under conditions of uncertainty, in an open and multidimensional perspective of understanding one’s own facticity and designing one’s own future. The fundamental choice of being, to which, ultimately, every act of existence is reduced, is the choice of a person between the possibilities of being authentically and inauthentically, between “selfhood” and “facelessness” (Heidegger,

1993).
According to Heidegger, co-existence with the Other is an inalienable moment of individuation of being-being, since the internal tension of the fundamental choice of being-being is carried out in the form of an “external” conflict of its self-existence and its inauthentic “subordination”, a conflict of one’s own and alien existential possibilities (Borisov,
1997 ).

According to J.-P. Sartre (1989, 2004), man is “a being that is directed towards the future and is aware that it is projecting itself into the future” (Sartre,

1989, p.
323), and personal choice is the creation of oneself, the implementation of a project of oneself, which is experienced subjectively as overcoming external obstacles through finding “meaning in choice” (Sartre,
2004, p. 498).
With each choice, a person chooses not only himself, but also a person in general, recognizing the value behind this or that choice. At the same time, the accumulation of choices forms the so-called fundamental project (Sartre,
2004), which sets the general direction of goals in life.
The fundamental existential choice of a person is the choice of his life project, the choice of himself, associated with the manifestation of existential responsibility (responsibility for humanity as a whole), the acceptance of uncertainty and the experience of anxiety: “If I hear a voice, then only I can decide whether it is the voice of an angel” (Sartre,
1989, p. 325).