Psychology of communication and interpersonal interaction

Definition

Interaction in psychology is the process of direct or indirect influence of people on each other as a result of communication, which gives rise to their interconnection or isolation. This definition of the concept is the most common in modern psychology, but not the only one.

A revolution in the way we study the human psyche has allowed the science of relationships to reach a new level and distinguish between the concepts of soul and body as separate areas of study. The problem of their relationships has become particularly acute. The definition of interaction has changed depending on the influence of time and the interpretation of various schools of psychology.

• Rene Descartes, a French philosopher, described interaction as the complete dependence of a living body on the influence of external forces.
• The scientist and thinker from the Netherlands, Benedict Spinoza, defined the mental principle in man as the result of the interaction of the body and nature, which is also an influential factor in this interaction.
• According to the theory of Parson, an American sociologist, interaction between individuals underlies the construction of individual human activity. With this approach, the entire diversity of social activity is built from the psychology of the individual.
• Social psychologists, Americans Thibault and Kelly presented a theory of interaction in a dyad. This approach implies that interaction should be considered any interpersonal relationship that is characterized by a real exchange of behavioral reflexes within a specific situation. The interaction will continue as long as both participants receive mutual benefits from the interaction.
• Polish sociologist J. Szczepanski proposed a different model for defining interaction, according to which interaction is not characterized by individual acts, but is divided into successive stages.
• According to G. Mead's concept, interaction is the starting point of every social psychological research. In a situation of interaction, personality formation occurs. The individual recognizes himself as a person in joint activities with others.
• Domestic psychology also considers various schemes of interaction situations. According to Galina Andreeva, interaction is defined as a form of organization of specific human activity.

CHAPTER 4. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF COMMUNICATION AND INTERACTION OF PEOPLE

Social psychology of communication

Definition of communication

In all group activities, participants act simultaneously in two capacities: as performers of conventional roles and as unique human individuals. When conventional roles are played, people act as units of social structure. There is agreement on the contribution that each role holder must make. Each participant's behavior is limited by patterns determined by cultural norms. By engaging in such enterprises, people remain unique living beings. The reactions of each of them turn out to be dependent on certain qualities of those with whom they come into contact. The nature of mutual attraction or repulsion is different in each case.

The pattern of interpersonal relationships that develop between people involved in a joint action creates another matrix that places further restrictions on what each person can or cannot do. Even in the most fleeting interactions, interpersonal reactions occur.

In most of the contacts that occur, such reactions are of little significance and are soon forgotten. As people continue to communicate with each other, more stable orientations emerge. The nature of these relationships in each case will depend on the personality traits included in the interaction of individuals.

Since a person expects special attention from his closest friends and is not inclined to expect good treatment from those whom he does not like, each party in the system of interpersonal relations is bound by a number of special rights and responsibilities. Conventional roles are standardized and impersonal.

But the rights and responsibilities that are established in interpersonal roles depend entirely on the individual characteristics of the participants and their preferences. Unlike conventional roles, most interpersonal roles are not specifically taught. Everyone develops their own type of appeal. Although no systems of interpersonal relationships are exactly alike, there are repeated situations and similar individuals react in the same way to the same type of treatment. Typical patterns of interpersonal relationships are observed and typical interpersonal roles can be named. Interpersonal roles that arise when people compete over similar interests include rival, enemy, conspirator, and ally. In every organized group there is a common understanding of how members are supposed to feel towards each other. In a family, for example, the relationship between mother and sons is conventionally defined.

People participating in a coordinated action simultaneously interact in the language of two sign systems. As performers of conventional roles, they use conventional symbols, which are the object of social control. At the same time, the special personal orientation of each character is manifested in the style of his performance, in what he does when the situation is not sufficiently defined and he has some freedom of choice. The manifestation of personality traits, in turn, causes responses, often unconscious.

These two forms of interaction imperceptibly transform into one another. Communication is a process of interrelation and interaction of social subjects (individuals, groups), characterized by the exchange of activities, information, experience, abilities, abilities and skills, as well as the results of activities, which is one of the necessary and universal conditions for the formation and development of society and the individual. At the social level, communication is a necessary condition for the transmission of social experience and cultural heritage from one generation to another.

In a psychological sense, communication is understood as the process and result of establishing contacts between people or the interaction of subjects through various sign systems. There are three aspects of communication, such as transmission of information (communicative aspect of communication); interaction (interactive aspect of communication); understanding and knowledge by people of each other (perceptual aspect of communication).

The key words in understanding the essence of communication are: contact, communication, interaction, exchange, method of unification.

There are various types of communication, which are most often determined by the specifics of feedback. Communication can be direct and indirect, interpersonal and mass. Direct communication is direct natural face-to-face communication, when the subjects of interaction are nearby and not only verbal communication occurs, but also communication using non-verbal means. Direct communication is the most complete type of interaction because individuals receive maximum information.

Direct communication can be formal and interpersonal. It can also be carried out between subjects and simultaneously between several subjects in a group. However, direct communication is only possible for a small group, i.e., one in which all subjects of interaction personally know each other.

Direct face-to-face communication is two-way and characterized by complete and immediate feedback. Indirect or indirect communication occurs in situations where individuals are separated from each other by time or distance, for example, if subjects talk on the phone or write letters to each other.

A special type of communication is mass communication, which determines social communicative processes. Mass communication represents multiple contacts of strangers, as well as communication mediated by various types of media.

Mass communication can be direct and indirect. Direct mass communication occurs at various rallies, in all large social groups: crowd, public, audience.

Indirect mass communication is most often one-way in nature and is associated with mass culture and the means of mass communication.

Since many media communicate information to large numbers of people at the same time, feedback is very difficult, but it does exist. People, under the influence of the content of information transmitted by such sources, form motives and attitudes that subsequently determine their social actions.

Levels of communication are determined by the general culture of interacting subjects, their individual and personal characteristics, characteristics of the situation, social control and many other factors.

The dominant ones are the value orientations of those communicating and their attitude towards each other. The most primitive level of communication is phatic (from the Latin fatuus - “stupid”), which involves a simple exchange of remarks to maintain a conversation in conditions where those communicating are not particularly interested in interaction, but are forced to communicate.

Its primitiveness lies not in the fact that the remarks are simple, but in the fact that there is no deep meaning or content behind them. Sometimes this level is designated as conventional (convention - “agreement”).

The next level of communication is informational. There is an exchange of information that is interesting to the interlocutors, which is the source of some type of human activity (mental, emotional, behavioral).

The information level of communication is usually stimulating in nature and prevails in conditions of joint activities or when old friends meet. The personal level of communication characterizes such interaction in which subjects are capable of the deepest self-disclosure and comprehension of the essence of another person.

The personal, or spiritual, level characterizes only such communication that is aimed at activating the positive attitude of the subjects of interaction themselves towards themselves, other people and the world around them as a whole.

If we consider communication in a certain system of relations, we can identify a set of groups of functions.

• Psychological functions determine the development of a person as an individual and personality.

In conditions of communication, many mental processes proceed differently than in conditions of isolated individual activity.

Communication stimulates the development of thought processes (cognitive activity), volitional processes (activity), and emotional processes (efficiency).

• Social functions determine the development of society as a social system and the development of groups as constituent units of this system.

Integration of society is possible only if there is communication in all its types, types and forms.

• Instrumental functions define numerous connections between a person and the world in the broadest sense of the word;

between different social groups.

The conceptual idea of ​​such a division of functions lies in the idea of ​​the relationship between man and society and the world in accordance with a simple model of relations: man - activity - society.

Communication is the most important concept in social psychology. Without communication, it is impossible to understand and analyze the process of formation of the personality of any person. Without communication we cannot become who we are becoming. Communication permeates all human life. A person reads a book, communication occurs, not only between the reader and the writer, but also vice versa. A person is watching a play, giving a lecture, talking on the phone, talking to a friend - all this is communication.

A person needs to communicate with another person from the moment of his own birth. It is known that from 1.5-2 months of age, the formation of a baby occurs only in communication with adults. The lack of such communication can further lead to various developmental disorders. For example, a similar phenomenon has been well studied in an orphanage. Children who end up in an orphanage at an early age (1-3 months) experience an acute lack of communication with adults, since the staff, naturally, cannot, for objective reasons, communicate with babies every hour. It was noticed that subsequently such children experienced difficulties in expressing their own and understanding the emotions of other people. Communication with people is a vital necessity for a person of any age. It is not for nothing that among all nations one of the most severe punishments is deprivation of communication (for example, detention in solitary confinement in prison).

Through communication, a person acquires knowledge about the world around him, in communication there is a transfer of experience, the study of those cultural, highly moral values ​​that have been developed by the population of the earth. Thanks to communication, people learn to evaluate actions and deeds, acquire behavioral criteria, and use them in practice. Such important human properties as sensitivity, truthfulness, kindness not only appear, but are also created in communication. All norms of life in society are instilled in the child in the conditions of communication. Communication also allows you to direct joint activities in the right direction and adjust them.

Communication promotes the development of a person’s interests or, on the contrary, can slow it down. In groups of teenagers who are interested in something, there is a desire to share their knowledge. And, on the contrary, those who are interested in literature or classical music, those who have such interests, often hide them so as not to look like a “black sheep.” As a result, communication itself becomes impoverished.

There are many definitions of this communication.

B.F. Lomov : “This is a specific form of human interaction with other people, during which there is a mutual exchange of activities, their methods and results, ideas, ideas, attitudes, interests, feelings, etc.”

G.M. Andreeva: “Communication is a complex, multifaceted process of establishing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified strategy for interaction, perception and understanding of another person.”

R.S. Nemov “Communication is a multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities.”

Stages of communication

The communication procedure includes the following stages:

• The need for communication (the need to communicate or find out information, influence the interlocutor, etc.) encourages a person to come into contact with other people.
• Orientation to the goals and situation of communication (what I want to get from the interlocutor, what the interlocutor wants to get from me).
• Orientation in the personality of the interlocutor (what kind of person is nearby, what is his character).
• Planning the content of communication (idea of ​​what exactly each interlocutor will say).
• Unconsciously (sometimes consciously) a person chooses specific means, speech phrases that he will use, decides how to speak, how to behave.
• Perception and assessment of the interlocutor’s response, monitoring the effectiveness of communication based on establishing feedback.
• Adjustment of direction, style, communication methods.

If any of the links in the act of communication is broken, then the speaker will not be able to achieve the expected results: communication will be ineffective.

Scheme 1. Communication procedure

Communication functions

The functions of communication are diverse. In the system of relationships between a person and other people, the following communication functions are distinguished:

Diagram 2. Communication functions

• Information and communication is the transmission and reception of information as a message.
• Regulatory-communicative – promotes the organization of interaction between people.
• Affective-communicative – is the process of making changes in the state of people. This is possible both purposefully and involuntarily.

Types of communication

• "Contact of masks." This is formal communication in which there is no desire to understand the personality characteristics of the interlocutor.
• Primitive communication: another person is assessed as a necessary or interfering object; if needed, they make contact; if it interferes, they push away.
• Formal-role communication, when both the content and means of communication are regulated. The interlocutor focuses on social roles.
• Business communication: take into account the personality, character, age, and mood of the interlocutor, but the interests of the business are more significant than personal characteristics.
• Spiritual, interpersonal. This is a conversation between friends, when you can touch on any topic. In this case, the personality of the interlocutor is important.
• Manipulative. It is aimed at extracting benefits from the interlocutor using various techniques (flattery, intimidation, deception) depending on his personality.
• Secular. The essence of secular communication is its pointlessness. People do not say what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases.

Communication structure

In the structure of communication, it is customary to distinguish three sides of communication:

The communicative side of communication, or communication in the narrow sense of the word, consists of the exchange of information between communicating individuals.

The interactive side consists in organizing interaction between communicating individuals, that is, in the exchange of not only knowledge, ideas, but also actions.

The perceptual side of communication means the process of perception and cognition of each other by communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis.

Diagram 4. Communication structure

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Types, types, styles

Interaction in psychology is the interactive action of individuals in a social environment, which is determined by many forms, types and styles. Social interaction is called interaction.

This concept refers to those actions of individuals that closely influence the actions and actions of others. Interactive interaction comes in various forms.

In modern psychology, the classification of P.A. is most often used to classify the types, types and styles of social cooperation. Sorokin, an American social psychologist of Russian origin.

He considered interaction as an exchange and classified it into the following types:

Russian psychologist S. Bratchenko added this classification with three more styles:

• Altruistic – actions for others to the detriment of oneself, development of a partner at one’s own expense. Such interaction implies that one of the participants ignores their problems.
• Comfortable - the individual fully joins the opinions of other participants, agreeing with all actions. In this situation, there are no opportunities for self-development.
• Indifferent – ​​the position of a pragmatist, in which psychological problems of communication are ignored. There is no opportunity for partner development.

The following types of interaction are distinguished, depending on the way the contact of external properties is carried out:

• declarative (verbal);
• physical;
• sensorimotor (gesture).

The interaction of an internal property is mental.

All types have common properties - meaningful orientation towards another person and motivation.

A common division in psychology is into two main opposing types: cooperation and competition.

• Cooperation is mutual cooperation based on reaching a mutual agreement on the means to achieve a goal, which is not violated until the desired result is achieved.
• Competition is the interaction of personal or collective interests in conditions of confrontation between the parties.

Characteristics and principles

Awareness of the laws of relationships helps self-development and successful achievement of goals.

Any social action has the following basic characteristics:

• Always has an external reason or purpose.
• Expressed and accessible to observation from the outside.
• Tied to a specific situation.
• Expresses the immediate intentions of all participants.

Interaction in society, the success of a collective or individual enterprise - these topics are always relevant for sociologists. Many experts in the field of psychology and sociology are working on the principles of productive cooperation. Psychosocial theorist Milton Erickson insisted on the close interconnection of an individual's physiological, mental, and social actions.

Its basic principles are as follows:

• All people are unique and have the right to be themselves. To create an atmosphere of trust, it is necessary to accept a person with all his views and beliefs. The realization that everyone is individual in nature leads to awareness of their individuality and inner comfort.
• Everyone has their own internal resources to achieve a personal goal. Their implementation depends on the strength of desire. When starting cooperation with a person with similar goals, you do not need to initially judge his capabilities; the main thing is to find the right general strategy.
• Each choice of a person in a given situation is the only correct and necessary one under the influence of external circumstances. Therefore, you should not worry about past failures; it is better to concentrate on the current moment.
• Any negative action should be looked at from the perspective of the person who committed it. Behind all actions, even bad ones, there is an initial intention of positive action towards oneself or another person. This suggests that there are no completely negative people. There are those who try to achieve their positive intentions in a way that negatively affects others. If you look at the situation from his side, you may be able to direct your partner or competitor in the right direction.
• Nothing stays the same. New experiences, new technologies, new environments lead to constant changes. The system of values ​​within a person also changes with age and under the influence of new knowledge. Changing goals and ways to achieve them is not a tragedy, but only a new step along the way.

The relationship between psychology and modern sciences

Subject and tasks of psychology.

Psychology (from ancient Greek ψυχή - “soul”; λόγος - “teaching”) is a science that studies the patterns of the emergence, development and functioning of the psyche and mental activity of humans and groups of people. Combines humanitarian and natural science approaches.

Includes fundamental psychology

, which reveals facts, mechanisms and laws of mental activity,
applied psychology
, which studies, based on the data
of fundamental
psychology, mental phenomena in natural conditions, and
practical psychology
, which deals with the application of psychological knowledge in practice.

The subject of psychology is understood differently throughout history and from the perspective of different areas of psychology.

· Soul (all researchers before the beginning of the 18th century)

· Phenomena of consciousness (English empirical associationist psychology - D. Hartley, John Stuart Mill, Alexander Bain, Herbert Spencer)

· Direct experience of the subject (structuralism - Wilhelm Wundt)

Adaptability (functionalism - William James)

· Origin of mental activities (psychophysiology - Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov)

· Behavior (behaviorism - John Watson)

· Unconscious (psychoanalysis - Sigmund Freud)

· Processes of image processing and the results of these processes (Gestalt psychology - Max Wertheimer)

· Personal experience of a person (humanistic psychology - Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Viktor Frankl, Rollo May)

· Processes of information processing by the information system “brain”, human cognitive abilities (cognitive psychology - George Miller, Herbert Simon, Allen Newell, Noam Chomsky, David Green, John Sweets and others)

The object of psychology is a collection of various carriers of mental phenomena, the main of which are behavior, activity, and relationships of people in large and small social groups.

Problems of psychology

· learn to understand the essence of mental phenomena;

· learn to manage them;

· use the acquired knowledge to improve the efficiency of various areas of practice;

· be the theoretical basis for the practice of psychological services.

The place of psychology in the system of sciences. Branches of psychology and their tasks.

Branches of psychology

Modern psychology is a multidisciplinary science. Branches of psychology are relatively independent developing areas. They are conventionally divided into fundamental (general) and applied (special).

The fundamental branches of psychology are of general importance in the study of mental phenomena. This is the basis that unites all branches of psychology and also serves as the basis for their development. Fundamental branches are usually called “general psychology.” The main concepts that general psychology considers are: cognitive processes (sensations, perceptions, attention, ideas, memory, imagination, thinking, speech, emotions, will), mental properties (abilities, motivation, temperament, character) and mental states. The emergence of general psychology as a fundamental branch is associated with the name of S. L. Rubinstein, who in 1942 created the fundamental work “Fundamentals of General Psychology.”

Applied branches of psychology are those that have practical significance. Such branches include, for example, educational psychology, developmental psychology, differential psychology, social psychology, clinical psychology, legal psychology, sports psychology and many others.

The place of psychology in the system of sciences

The position of psychology is associated with two diverse traditions. The first represents its desire to become a natural science discipline, the second its desire to take the place of everyday psychology. As V.V. Petukhov and V.V. Stolin point out, both goals are fundamentally unattainable. In comparison with everyday psychology, scientific psychology is a special discipline with its own conceptual and methodological apparatus for the study of mental life. At the same time, psychology has features associated with the fact that the object of its study is capable of internal reflection of its states. Scientific and everyday psychology retain fundamental differences, but at the same time they are interconnected.

Psychology has connections with both the natural and human sciences. The connection between psychology and the natural sciences is based on the biological nature of man. However, the peculiarity of man is that he is a social being, whose mental phenomena are largely socially determined. For this reason, psychology is usually classified as a humanities science. A distinctive feature of psychology is the merging of the object and subject of cognition.

The relationship between psychology and modern sciences

Questions of psychology have long been considered within the framework of philosophy. Only in the middle of the 19th century did psychology become an independent science. But having separated from philosophy, it continues to maintain a close connection with it. Currently, there are scientific problems that are studied by both psychology and philosophy. Such problems include the concepts of personal meaning, life goals, worldview, political views, moral values ​​and more. Psychology uses experimental methods to test hypotheses. However, there are questions that cannot be solved experimentally. In such cases, psychologists can turn to philosophy. Philosophical and psychological problems include problems of the essence and origin of human consciousness, the nature of the highest forms of human thinking, the influence of society on the individual and the individual on society.

A.G. Maklakov points out that, although for a long time philosophy was divided into materialistic and idealistic, now there has been a convergence of these trends in philosophy, and we can talk about the equal importance for psychology of both directions. Materialistic philosophy is fundamental when considering problems of activity and the origin of higher mental functions. Idealist philosophy, according to Maklakov, poses such problems as responsibility, conscience, the meaning of life, spirituality. Maklakov notes that the use of both directions (materialistic and idealistic) in psychology “most fully reflects the dual essence of man, his biosocial nature.”

According to A.G. Maklakov, problems of epistemology are among the problems that can be solved only through the cooperation of psychologists and philosophers. Some theories of psychology are of a psychological and philosophical nature, such as, for example, the theoretical works of neo-Freudians. For example, the works of Erich Fromm are used in psychology, sociology and philosophy.

Psychology is closely related to the social sciences. It has a lot in common with sociology. Sociology borrows from social psychology methods for studying personality and human relationships. Psychology widely uses methods of collecting scientific information such as surveys and questionnaires, which are traditionally considered sociological. There are various concepts that psychology and sociology adopt from each other. Psychologists and sociologists solve many problems, such as national psychology, political psychology, problems of socialization and social attitudes, together.

Social sciences such as pedagogy and history are also important for psychology. An example of the synthesis of history and psychology is the theory of cultural and historical development of higher mental forms by L. S. Vygotsky. The use of the historical method in psychology is to study the phylo- and ontogenetic development of mental phenomena from elementary to complex forms. The convergence of history and psychology is based on the concept that modern man is a product of human development.

Psychology is closely related to the medical and biological sciences. The use of the achievements of these sciences in psychology is based on the fact that most mental phenomena and mental processes are physiologically determined. There are known facts about the mutual influence of the mental and somatic on each other. The mental state influences the physiological state. Mental characteristics can contribute to the development of certain diseases. The inverse relationship is that chronic illness affects mental health.

Psychology actively interacts with a large number of sciences and branches of scientific knowledge. This interaction is manifested, first of all, in the creation of branches of psychology, which are related, applied branches of scientific knowledge that study the patterns of objective reality from the perspective of the subject of psychology. For example, the connection between psychology and anthropology is established thanks to the existence of such a fundamental branch of psychology as personality psychology; the connection between psychology and psychiatry is expressed in the existence of such branches as pathopsychology, clinical psychology, psychosomatics, psychology of abnormal development; the connection with neurobiology, anatomy and physiology of the central nervous system is revealed and realized through neuropsychology, psychophysiology; the connection with genetics is expressed in the creation of psychogenetics; with defectology - in the existence of special psychology; linguistics, interacting with psychology, gives birth to psycholinguistics; The connection with jurisprudence is clearly manifested in such branches of psychology as forensic psychology, victim psychology, criminal psychology, and crime investigation psychology.

Functions and role

Interaction in psychology is a multifunctional process that is determined by various criteria. Most often, the role of interaction is considered in the model: individual – activity – society.

The most important functions of interpersonal communication are:

• Pragmatic - manifests itself as the most important condition in uniting individuals to jointly perform common work.
• Formative – is implemented in the process of forming a person’s personality.
• function is carried out in the process of cognition and approval of personal attitudes during interaction with other people.
• Interpersonal – has different levels, from the sphere of friendship and love to business relationships.
• Intrapersonal - manifests itself in the individual’s communication with his inner self, in the construction of dialogues of internal and external speech.

Forms of manifestations and physiology

Every person is a social being, that is, aimed at some type of interaction. People have a strong need to belong, to form lasting relationships with other individuals. The need for positive interaction is determined by a number of socio-biological aspects and contributes to human fitness and survival.

Interaction is a process that manifests itself in a wide variety of areas of human communication:

• In the economic sphere, each person acts as an employee, owner or manager.
• Political - generates cooperation or confrontation between individuals, as representatives of various movements, political parties.
• Professional – creates interaction between representatives of various professions.
• Demographic - includes communication between different age, racial, and gender groups.
• Family – interaction within a circle of family ties.
• Religious – interaction or conflicts based on religious beliefs and beliefs.
• On the basis of the territorial-settlement sphere, interaction between newcomers and permanent residents occurs.

Social interaction manifests itself as the connection of an individual with another individual, and the connection of each with the common world.

There are various forms of interaction.

According to P. Sorokin’s structure, they are distinguished as follows:

• By duration: long-term and short-term.
• By the number of participants: single, between two parties and multilateral.
• Organized and spontaneous.
• Conscious and unconscious.
• Intellectual, emotional and strong-willed.
• Actual and possible.

In each sphere, all basic types and types of interaction are possible. The formation of the human personality is manifested in the harmonious relationship between the mental and physiological capabilities of the body.

The realization of an individual in society is possible with a sufficient level of psychological energy, which determines his performance. At the same time, flexibility and mental stability allows you to adequately assess the environment and find ways to mutually beneficial cooperation.

Psychology and Management

The connection between special and other types of psychology by science can be traced in this area. Here she tells how to gain the client’s trust, how to understand his needs and wishes, how to resolve a conflict situation.

Psychological theories and schools

Various psychological schools present their theories of relationship development.

The main ones accepted in common practice are:

The following theories are also widespread:

• symbolic interactionism (J. Mead, G. Bloomer);

  

• theory of motivation (A. Maslow);
• theory of impression management (E. Goffman);
• interaction registration scheme (R. Bales).

Diagnostics

Interaction in psychology is a broad area of ​​research in the field of interpersonal relationships in various spheres of human activity. With the help of test diagnostics, psychologists help determine the personal characteristics of an individual, his greatest strengths and formulate ways to achieve goals.

Research in the field of interpersonal relationships and communications allows us to optimally build profitable interaction in any field of activity.

• The Timothy Leary Questionnaire is a diagnostic of interpersonal relationships that allows you to determine a person’s self-image and to evaluate him from others. The test consists of 128 judgments. Of these, in the first circle you need to select those that correspond to a person’s idea of ​​himself, in the second – to his ideas about the ideal image. The result is provided in graphical form.
• The Thomas -Kilman Test of Behavior in Conflict Situations is designed to measure an individual’s interaction style and also identify predispositions to create or resolve conflicts. The test contains 30 pairs of situations from which you need to choose the one that is most typical for the individual.
• Tests by Viktor Boyko determine the presence and degree of negative communicative attitudes that are formed as a result of negative experiences of interactions or pronounced negative emotionality. The test's 25 questions require sincere "yes" or "no" answers.

  

• R. Girshfield's test diagnoses dependence in interpersonal interaction in various spheres: partnership, love, family. The test consists of 48 questions, to which 4 possible answers are given.
• The Berry and Janae Weinhold scale was developed to assess interdependence in relationships. The test consists of 20 questions.
• T. Bant's manipulative attitude scale allows us to identify the attitude towards an interaction partner as a means of achieving personal goals, without taking into account his will and desires. The test consists of 20 questions about judgments about people around you.

These and other tests are used by practicing psychologists. Many are provided on websites; you can go through them individually for free. In this case, a simplified interpretation of the result is provided. If you take a serious approach to the situation, it is worth getting advice and more detailed explanations from practicing specialists.

You can undergo psychological diagnostics at psychological assistance centers. Services are provided both upon individual request and for collective research within the company. Prices for services vary, depending on requests. The approximate minimum cost of consultation is in the range of 1200-1500 rubles.

The psychology of interaction with people is useful to everyone

MOLDOVENII.MD

A person spends most of his life among other people and is part of a variety of groups: family, work team, friends, like-minded people. His behavior changes dramatically depending on the situation. Social psychologists study the behavior and motives of people in different groups and identify interesting patterns, which you will learn about in this article.

1. It is important for us to interact with people

Psychologists in the United States have found that 20% of people who receive Christmas cards from strangers also send them greetings. For the same reason, waiters receive more tips if they share recipes or give advice.

2. A person tends to value more what he directly owns

Research has shown that willingness to sell is weaker than willingness to buy. Participants in the experiment were persuaded to buy a glass for $5, but, having received it, the subjects refused to sell the mug for less than $10.

3. The heat makes us angrier, and the sadness makes us cold.

When you are dissatisfied with something, it seems that the room is cold, and you are more likely to want hot dishes rather than cold ones. Crime rates are higher in hot regions, and more crimes occur on warm days. This happens because heat excites the nervous system, and people mistakenly attribute this to some life situation.

4. A smile is contagious and says a lot about you.

In a movie theater, a person will laugh more if the people around him are laughing. Another situation: bowling, a man hit a strike, but only started smiling when he turned to his friends. This is a smile for social approval, and not from the joy of having done something successfully.

One study found that students who showed Duchenne smiles (the most genuine smiles that use the muscles around the eyes and mouth) in album photos were more likely to be married and more likely to describe themselves as happy 30 years later. And students with less pronounced smiles were much more likely to get divorced.

5. Expectation influences decision making

In one study, psychologists called participants and asked them if they would hypothetically be willing to volunteer for the American Cancer Society. When the same people were called a few days later and asked the same question, 31% of respondents agreed, although only 4% agreed the first time.

6. We act differently when we think about ourselves.

Before the test was administered, subjects were told that men and women scored differently. After this, the participants' performance dropped sharply. And the results of men decreased after communicating with an attractive woman. And another situation: when children go to Halloween in a group, they take a lot of candy; but if a child goes out alone and is also asked for his name, he will take much less sweets.

7. Observation from the outside helps sometimes, but not during meals.

If you are observed while performing a simple task, your results will increase, but if you are observed during a complex task or a task related to learning a new skill, your results will decrease. By the way, this feature is inherent not only to people, but also to cockroaches (!). Being in a room with others has another effect: if a repairman is working in the room (even in the very corner), people begin to work more slowly. In addition, people, like animals, eat more if they eat in the presence of someone else.

8. An effective way to get someone to do something is to compare them with their friends.

One electric power company tried to convince people to save electricity at home. To this end, posters were issued with the inscription “Your neighbors have reduced their electricity consumption.” As a result, home energy use decreased by 2%. The calls “Save energy, save money” and “Save energy to save the environment” not only failed to reduce the use of electricity, but in some cases, on the contrary, led to an increase in consumption.

9. The context in which an action is performed influences the action itself.

In the poll, 56% of school voters were in favor of increasing the school budget, compared with 53% elsewhere. While this effect may not seem all that important, it is statistically significant. A similar experiment was repeated in laboratory conditions (64% of people who were shown a photo of a school voted for an increase in the budget).

10. The more you learn about something, the more you like it.

This feature is called the “recognition effect”, and a split second is enough for it to occur. It is widely used in advertising. The more often you see an ad or advertisement, the more highly you will rate the company. Bright pictures that evoke positive and negative emotions in just a few milliseconds change your opinion about something at the subconscious level.

11. Smooth lines vs angles

People tend to like rounded visual objects more than objects with pointed edges.

12. Make sure nothing happens to you when there are a lot of people around

Witnesses are less likely to interfere with a crime or help in a critical situation if there are other bystanders, because they think that someone else will help and they will be able to avoid responsibility. If the victim is bleeding, people are even less likely to help, simply because the very sight of blood scares them. But a victim who screams loudly will receive more help than one who is silent: more people will perceive a clear and unambiguous signal of danger.

13. We all want to be happy, but too much happiness has a negative impact on work.

Based on a survey of more than 10 thousand people in 48 countries, it was found that happiness is valued more than other personal prospects - finding the meaning of life, becoming rich or going to heaven. Happy people more often call themselves curious, while depressed people are able to notice even minor changes in the facial expressions of their interlocutor. And also very happy people (9 out of 10 or 10 out of 10 points on the scale of measuring happiness - there is one) did not study well and receive a small salary, compared to moderately happy people (6, 7, 8 out of 10 on the scale).

14. We do stupid things to fit in.

In the study, a participant was assigned to a group and asked to answer a seemingly simple question. The group was instructed in advance to say a deliberately incorrect answer. In the end, 37 out of 50 subjects gave the wrong answer, repeating it after the majority (even if it was obviously wrong), simply because they wanted to please the group members or thought that the majority knew better than them. This effect is blunted if there is at least one person in the group who agrees with the subject.

15. We find it difficult to separate appearance from character.

A positive or negative reaction to a person (“he’s a nice guy”) influences our judgment of his appearance (“he’s attractive”). This phenomenon is called the "halo effect." It is very noticeable in the example of celebrities: their attractiveness and fame lead us to believe that they are smart, happy or kind.

16. Not all types of rewards affect us the same.

Expectation of reward reduces motivation. An unexpected reward, on the contrary, increases it. A fixed bonus is less effective than a bonus whose size varies depending on the quality of work.

17. Having power can significantly influence our emotions and behavior.

In the Stanford prison experiment, volunteers were divided into two groups - "prisoners" and "guards" - and placed in a kind of prison. After six days, the experiment was completed (although it was planned to last for two weeks). The participants settled into their roles: the “guards” bullied and mistreated the “prisoners,” and many of the “prisoners” experienced severe emotional distress.

18. Power makes us obedient and can force us to do things we could never imagine.

In Milgram's famous experiment, participants were asked to give shocks of increasing intensity if a subject in the next room gave incorrect answers to questions asked. The role of the victim was played by the experimenter's assistant. The participant initially delivered weak shocks, but in the second part of the experiment he was asked to press the "Danger: High Current" button, ignoring the victim's requests to stop the experiment. As a result, 63% of the subjects pressed the button with the maximum discharge, which, if it had not been staged, could have been fatal to another person.

19. Self-control at an early age may indicate success in adulthood.

Another famous experiment is the “marmalade test”. The child is left in the room, and marmalade or cookies are placed on the table in front of him. And they warn: he can eat marmalade (or cookies) now, and then the experiment is considered over. But, if he waits for the experimenter to return, he will receive two gummies as a reward.

Children who can't wait and eat jelly right away or try to eat it on the sly are more likely to have problems in the future at work, get low grades when applying to university, have problems paying attention in school and have difficulty maintaining friendships. It's a fact: a child who can wait 15 minutes will score half as much on admission as a child who only waits 30 seconds.

20. People like round numbers

This list consists of 20 items, not 19, for the same reason that many people try to run 2 km rather than 1.9 km in training. An attraction to certain numbers is deeply ingrained in human nature.

Source: lifehacker.ru

Management methods

Interaction management is possible with the help of various trainings and psychological exercises. Their goal is to remove internal barriers and develop communication skills.

Many teams of trainers are working on creating special exercises. Exercises teach you how to manage the flow of a conversation and how to introduce yourself. Below are some examples of exercises that are used in interaction management training.

Exercises from the training:

"Tell about…"

This exercise is used for deeper personal disclosure and for getting to know each other.

Conducted in a group. Each of the training participants chooses any personal item and characterizes himself on behalf of this item. Other objects may ask him questions about its owner.

"In other words"

During this lesson, speech flexibility is trained, the ability to convey the same thought in your own words.

All participants in the game are divided into teams of 4 people. The goal of the game: to convey a simple phrase given by the presenter in a chain, without changing its meaning, but without using a single word in its exact form. Ultimately, 4 new phrases should be formed, exact in meaning, but from different words. The team that completes this task faster wins.

Exercises from Klaus Vopel:

"Who reminds whom"

It often happens that it is difficult for a new group to communicate with someone due to the fact that the person, in some way, resembles an already familiar person from a close circle. Subconsciously, the attitude towards him develops according to the evoked association. The exercise is carried out at the beginning of acquaintance with a member of the group.

Each participant is given 3 minutes to identify a person similar to someone significant to him. This person needs to be given a card on which to indicate who he resembles and the main features of a significant person. During the discussion, a closer acquaintance occurs, coincidences and discrepancies between the real and the represented are revealed.

"Self-disclosure"

Interaction in a group also depends on how individual members are able to reveal themselves in the group. During the training, everyone independently assesses their ability to open up. The results obtained are discussed and compared with the opinions of other group members about this individual.

In psychology and sociology, the science of interaction plays a large role. Effective communication is the basis of various areas of human life, from personal relationships to interactions for career growth.

How to write a term paper on speech therapy

07.09.2010 179899

These guidelines are compiled to help students gain an understanding of the content and structure of coursework in speech therapy.

Logopedia of pedagogical science that studies anomalies of speech development with normal hearing, explores the manifestations, nature and mechanisms of speech disorders, develops the scientific basis for overcoming and preventing them means of special training and education.

The subject of speech therapy as a science is speech disorders and the process of training and education of persons with speech disorders.

The object of study is a person suffering from a speech disorder.

The main task of speech therapy as a science is the study, prevention and elimination of various types of speech disorders.

Coursework in speech therapy is a student's scientific and experimental research. This type of educational activity, provided for by the educational and professional program and curriculum, contributes to the acquisition of skills in working with literature, analyzing and summarizing literary sources in order to determine the range of insufficiently studied problems, determining the content and methods of experimental research, processing skills and qualitative analysis of the results obtained. The need to complete coursework in speech therapy is due to the updating of knowledge concerning the content, organization, principles, methods and techniques of speech therapy work.

As a rule, during their studies, students must write two term papers - theoretical and practical.

The first course work should be devoted to the analysis and synthesis of general and specialized literature on the chosen topic. Based on this analysis, it is necessary to justify and develop a method of ascertaining (diagnostic) experiment.

In the second course work, it is necessary to provide an analysis of the results obtained during the ascertaining experiment, as well as determine the directions and content of speech therapy work, and select adequate methods and techniques of correction.

So, let’s present the general requirements for the content and design of coursework in speech therapy.

The initial and most important stage of working on a course project is the choice of a topic, which is either proposed by the supervisor or chosen by the student independently from a list of topics that are consistent with the areas of scientific research of the department.

Each topic can be modified, considered in different aspects, but taking into account a theoretical and practical approach. Having chosen a topic, the student needs to think through in detail its specific content, areas of work, practical material, etc., which should be reflected both in the formulation of the topic and in the further construction of the study. It should be recalled that the chosen topic may not only have a purely theoretical orientation, for example: “Dysarthria. Characteristics of the defect”, “Classification of dysgraphia”, but also take into account the practical significance of the problem under consideration, for example: “Speech therapy work on speech correction for dysarthria”. It should also be taken into account that when formulating a topic, excessive detail should be avoided, for example: “Formation of prosodic components of speech in preschoolers of the sixth year of life attending a preschool institution for children with severe speech impairments.”

The course work includes such mandatory parts as: introduction, three chapters, conclusion, bibliography and appendix.

The text of the term paper begins with the title page . An example of its design can be seen here.

Then the content of the work is given, in which the names of chapters, paragraphs, and sections are formulated in strict accordance with the content of the thesis. An example of its design can be seen here.

In the text, each subsequent chapter and paragraph begins on a new page. At the end of each chapter, the materials are summarized and conclusions are formulated.

The introduction reveals the relevance of the problem under consideration in general and the topic being studied in particular; the problem, subject, object, and purpose of the study are defined. In accordance with the goal and hypothesis, objectives and a set of research methods aimed at achieving the objectives must be defined.

The relevance of the topic lies in reflecting the current level of pedagogical science and practice, meeting the requirements of novelty and usefulness.

When defining the research problem, it is important to indicate what practical tasks it will help to implement in training and educating people with speech pathology.

The object of research is understood as certain aspects of pedagogical reality, perceived through a system of theoretical and practical knowledge. The ultimate goal of any research is to improve this object.

The subject of research is some part, property, element of an object, i.e. the subject of research always indicates a specific aspect of the object that is to be studied and about which the researcher wants to gain new knowledge. An object is a part of an object.

You can give an example of the formulation of the object, subject and problem of research:

– The object of the study is the speech activity of preschool children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.

– The subject of the study is the features of intonation speech of children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.

– The research problem is to determine effective directions for speech therapy work on the formation of intonation expressiveness of speech in the system of correctional intervention.

The purpose of the study contributes to the specification of the object being studied. The goal of any research is to solve a specific problem. The goal is specified in tasks taking into account the subject of research.

The research objectives are formulated in a certain sequence, which determines the logic of the research. The research objectives are set on the basis of a theoretical analysis of the problem and an assessment of the state of its solution in practice.

The first chapter is an analysis of literary sources, which examines the state of this problem in historical and modern aspects, and presents the most important theoretical principles that formed the basis of the study.

When writing the first chapter, you should pay attention to the fact that the text of the course work must be written in a scientific style. When presenting scientific material, it is necessary to comply with the following requirements:

– Specificity – a review of only those sources that are necessary to disclose only a given topic or solve only a given problem;

– Clarity – which is characterized by semantic coherence and integrity of individual parts of the text;

– Logicality – which provides for a certain structure of presentation of the material;

– Reasoning – evidence of thoughts (why this and not otherwise);

– Precision of wording, excluding ambiguous interpretation of the authors’ statements.

A literary review of the state of the problem being studied should not be reduced to a consistent presentation of literary sources. It should present a generalized description of the literature: highlight the main directions (currents, concepts, points of view), analyze in detail and evaluate the most fundamental works of representatives of these directions.

When writing a work, the student must correctly use literary materials, make references to the authors and sources from which the results of scientific research are borrowed. Failure to provide required references will reduce your coursework grade.

As a rule, in coursework on speech therapy, references to literary sources are formatted as follows: the number of the cited source in the general list of references is placed in square brackets. For example: General speech underdevelopment is a speech pathology in which there is a persistent lag in the formation of all components of the language system: phonetics, vocabulary and grammar [17].

When using quotations, in square brackets, in addition to indicating the source number, the page number from which this excerpt is taken is indicated, for example: Speech rhythm is based on a physiological and intellectual basis, since, firstly, it is directly related to the rhythm of breathing. Secondly, being an element that performs a communicative function, “correlates with meaning, i.e. controlled intellectually” [23, P.40].

However, course work should not be of a purely abstract nature, so you should not abuse the unreasonable abundance of citations. Quoting should be logically justified, convincing and used only when really necessary.

In the second chapter , devoted to experimental research, the organization should be described and the program of the ascertaining experiment should be presented. The survey methodology, as a rule, consists of a description of several series of tasks, with detailed instructions, visual and lexical material, the procedure for completing tasks by experiment participants, and scoring criteria. This chapter also provides a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the results obtained.

When analyzing the results of an experiment, it is necessary to use a scoring system. Examples of various criteria for quantitative and qualitative assessment are presented in the following works:

– Glukhov V.P. Formation of coherent speech in preschool children with general speech underdevelopment. - M.: Arkti, 2002. - 144 p.

– Fotekova T.A. Test methodology for diagnosing oral speech of primary schoolchildren. - M.: Arkti, 2000. - 56 p.

– Levchenko I.Yu. Pathopsychology: Theory and practice. - M.: Academy, 2000. - 232 p.

In order to visually present the results obtained during the experimental study, it is recommended to use tables, graphs, diagrams, etc. Histograms can be used in a variety of ways - columnar, cylindrical, planar, volumetric, etc. An example of the design of tables, figures, and histograms can be found here.

The third chapter provides a rationale for the proposed methods and techniques and reveals the content of the main stages of correctional work.

The conclusion contains a summary of the material presented and the main conclusions formulated by the author.

The bibliography must contain at least 25 sources. The list includes bibliographic information about the sources used in preparing the work. An example of its design can be seen here.

In the application you can present bulky tables or illustrations, examination protocols, observation records, products of activity (drawings, written works of children), notes from speech therapy classes, etc.

The volume of one course work must be at least 30 pages of typewritten text.

In general, coursework in speech therapy is the basis for a future thesis, in which the study of the begun problem can be continued, but from the standpoint of a different approach or a comparative analysis of the disorders being studied in different age categories of people with different types of speech disorders.

The content and format of theses in speech therapy can be found here.

Literature:

1. How to write a term paper on speech therapy: Methodological recommendations. Educational and methodological manual / Comp. Artemova E.E., Tishina L.A. / Ed. Orlova O.S. – M.: MGOPU, 2008. – 35 p.

2. Research work of students in the system of higher professional pedagogical education (specialty 031800 - Speech therapy). Methodological recommendations for completing the thesis / Compiled by. L.V. Lopatina, V.I. Lipakova, G.G. Golubeva. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A. I. Herzen, 2002. - 140 p.