Test: Psychology of communication: types and functions of communication

Question 2

Communication side of communication:

The main goal of information exchange communication is to develop a common meaning and a common point of view, agreement on various situations and problems. In the process of communication, the participants in communication are faced with the task of not only exchanging information, but also achieving its adequate understanding. In this regard, they talk about the existence of a barrier that arises in the communication process.

A communication barrier is a psychological obstacle in the way of a lack of information transfer between communication partners (rapid speech).

In the process of communication, information is exchanged both at the verbal and non-verbal levels. At the verbal level, human speech is used. Nonverbal means of communication are necessary in order to create and maintain psychological contact that regulates the communication process, give new semantic shades to the verbal text and direct the interpretation of words in a certain direction, express emotions, assessments, semantic situations, and the accepted role.

Types of non-verbal means of communication:

1. Visual appearance (kinesics - movements of the hands, head, gait, facial expression, eyes, posture, direction of gaze, skin reactions, proxemics - this is the spatial non-temporal organization of communication - the distance between interlocutors).
2. Acoustic appearance (voice quality, range, tonality).
3. Tactile appearance (tapesika - touching, shaking hands, hugging, kissing).
4. Olfactory appearance (pleasant and unpleasant environmental odors, natural and unnatural human odors).

Question 3.

Communication as interaction (the interactive side of communication):

The interactive side of communication is a conventional term denoting the characteristics of those components of communication that are associated with the interaction of people, with the direct organization of their joint activities. If we adhere to a certain scheme, we can say that communication in the broad sense of the word as the reality of interpersonal and social relations includes communication as the exchange of information. If the communication process is born on the basis of some joint activity, then the exchange of knowledge and ideas about this activity inevitably presupposes that acceptable mutual understanding is realized in new joint attempts to further develop the activity and organize it. The other side of the issue captures not only the exchange of information, but also the organization of joint actions that allow partners to implement some common activity for them.

6 pages, 2802 words

Emotional and personal communication as a type of activity in infancy

13 Examination in the discipline: “Children’s Psychology” On the topic: “Emotional-personal communication as a type of activity in infancy” Contents: INTRODUCTION 1. General characteristics and significance of emotional-personal communication in infancy 2. Emotional-personal communication during the newborn period 3. Emotional-personal communication in the first half of life 4. Emotional-...

Types of relationships:

Cooperation is a necessary element of joint activity, generated by its special nature.

Competition is a conflict situation based on different positions of the participants, the trigger, development and resolution of the conflict.

A destructive conflict becomes personal and gives rise to interests independent of the cause.

A productive conflict arises when a clash is based on the incompatibility of personalities, giving rise to a difference in points of view on any problem.

Communication styles: democratic, liberal and business

The democratic style requires that before making any decision, it must be discussed. What does it mean?

1. Effective use of motivation.
2. The presence of satisfaction with the fruits of your labor.
3. Unlocking creative potential, encouraging initiative.
4. Maintaining a favorable psychological climate.

The liberal (will be described in more detail below) has one distinctive feature from the democratic one in that the interlocutor who occupies a higher status in society or at work in a given group of interlocutors is soft and flexible. As a result, people have greater ability to self-govern.

Business style is most often associated with official business, which is not entirely true, since this style is intended to be used not only within the state, but also between them. It provides for both oral and written forms with the complete exclusion of dual understanding. The official style is used by organizations with various forms of ownership, mainly in written form, and in oral form - partner communications. This style is intended for negotiating, concluding mutually beneficial deals, etc.

But the world is not focused only on business communications, because there is also a professional type of interaction. Here specialists of some industry already communicate with a set of highly specialized terms.

Question 4.

Communication as people’s perception of each other (perceptual side of communication):

The process of perception by one person of another acts as an obligatory component of communication and can conditionally be called the perceptual side of communication. Social perception began to be called the process of perceiving social objects, by which we mean certain people, social groups, and large social communities. When the subject of perception is an individual, he can perceive another individual belonging to his group, an individual belonging to another group, his own group, an alien group, and can also perceive communities. The situation is more complicated when not only an individual, but also an entire group is interpreted as the subject of perception. Then it is worth adding to this process: the group’s perception of its own member, a representative of another group, the group’s perception of itself, the perception of another group as a whole.

8 pages, 3852 words

“Difficult” teenagers and informal communication groups

Content. Introduction……………………………………………………………..3 Part 1. Brief history of informal youth groups………………………..4 Part 2. Informal youth groups in Russia……………………………13 Part 3. Individual approach to informal schoolchildren…………………20 References………………………… ………………………………….25 & …

The role of perception in the communication process. Errors of perception

Where does communication begin? Of course, “at first sight”, i.e. communication begins with observing the interlocutor, his appearance, voice, and demeanor. Psychologists say in this regard that one person perceives another. Effective communication is impossible without correct perception, assessment and mutual understanding of partners, that is, without the perceptual side of communication.

Various factors influence how people perceive and evaluate each other. Research has confirmed that children and adults differ in social perception. Children are more focused on the perception of appearance (clothes, hairstyle, etc.); they recognize a person’s emotional state better by facial expressions than by gestures. In addition, the observer’s profession has a strong influence on the perception process. Thus, when assessing the same person, a salesperson will evaluate his appearance, a philologist will evaluate his speech characteristics, and a physician will evaluate his physical health.

However, in general, a person is faced with the task not simply of “perceiving”, but rather of getting to know another person. In the course of cognition, an emotional assessment of a person is carried out and an attempt is made to understand the logic of his actions and, on this basis, to build his own behavior.

People entering into communication differ from each other in life experience and social status. Social status is the position (position) of an individual or group in the social system, determined by a number of characteristics: profession, education, economic, family, age, ethnic, etc.), intellectual development, etc. What signs allow us to judge, for example, the superiority of our interlocutor in terms of social status? Research has shown that the process of forming a first impression of a person is essential. The first impression is greatly influenced by:

1) a person’s appearance (clothing, hairstyle, jewelry, glasses, insignia; in some cases, “clothing” such as a car, office decoration, stationery, etc. is considered);

2) a person’s behavior (how he stands, walks, sits, talks, where his gaze is directed, etc.).

Appearance and demeanor are factors of superiority, since they always contain elements that indicate a person’s belonging to a certain social group or his orientation towards a certain group.

Nowadays, the role of clothing is very significant. Knowing the “secrets” of clothing, you can create a certain image in your communication partner, increase (if necessary, decrease) your importance and prestige. For example, when going to an exam and putting on a formal suit and shirt and tie, students most likely strive to slightly inflate their social status. If the teacher wears jeans and a sweater for the same exam, then he is trying to weaken the factor of his superiority in order to improve interaction with the student. Properly selected clothing will help create a favorable impression, inspire trust on the part of your partner and create the image of an honest, reliable interlocutor.

What in clothing indicates superiority? Firstly, the price. The price of clothing is determined by quality, as well as by the frequency of occurrence of a given model (scarcity) and its fashionability. Secondly, the silhouette of the clothes. “High status” for both women and men is considered to be a silhouette resembling an elongated rectangle with emphasized corners, “low status” is a silhouette resembling a ball in shape.

For example, a sweater, especially a voluminous and fluffy one, jeans or soft trousers are incompatible with high status. However, at a friendly party, a soft sweater (pullover) is perceived better than a formal suit. Thirdly, the color of the clothes. Please note that specific colors may have different meanings in different countries. In European clothing, achromatic colors, i.e., black, gray and white, are considered a sign of high status (regardless of fashion trends); the brighter and more saturated the color, the lower the person's perceived status. All these signs are important in interaction; they should not be considered separately.

In addition, various details, such as decorations, influence the first impression. Massive gold signet rings for men, as well as large diamond rings for women, although they indicate their financial capabilities, can sometimes cause an undesirable effect (“disgusting jewelry may appear to a communication partner as cunning, insincere, and prone to dominance , claiming increased attention to their person.

In the manner of behavior, as in clothing, there are always elements that allow one to judge the status of the interlocutor (gait, manner of sitting and standing). For example, the results of experiments showed that people around them prefer people who sit freely on a chair, slightly tilting their body forward. And, conversely, people who sit straight on a chair, leaning slightly back, cause a negative attitude; the same applies to the manner of sitting on a chair with crossed arms or legs.

When perceiving a person, the factor of attractiveness is of great importance. The difficulty in determining this factor is due to the fact that we are accustomed to considering attractiveness as an individual impression. Any attempt to generalize the signs of attractiveness “encounters” internal resistance. Different peoples in different historical periods had and have their own canons of beauty, so the factor of attractiveness is determined not by the shape of the eyes and hair color, but by the social significance of this or that characteristic of a person. After all, there are types of appearance that are approved and disapproved by society or a specific social group, which means that attractiveness is an approximation to the type of appearance that is maximally approved by the group to which we belong.

Another important factor in perception is the attitude of others. At the same time, people who treat us well are valued much higher than those who treat us poorly. In the experiment, psychologists, having identified the subjects' opinions on a number of issues, introduced them to the opinions of other people on the same issues and asked them to evaluate these people. It turned out that the closer someone else’s opinion is to one’s own, the higher the assessment of the person who expressed this opinion. In this experiment, agreement was assessed using direct questions. However, there are a large number of indirect signs of agreement: nods of approval, smiles and words in the right places, demeanor. In communication, it is very important that consent is clearly expressed. If there is agreement, then the perception of the factor of positive attitude towards us is included.

Studying the processes of perception, psychologists have identified typical distortions of ideas about another person - the so-called errors (effects) of perception:

• Stereotyping effects—leads to two different consequences. Firstly, to simplify the knowledge of another person (people). Secondly, to the formation of prejudices towards representatives of various social groups (professional, socio-economic, ethnic, etc.):

• Halo effect (halo effect, halo or horn effect) - a general favorable or unfavorable opinion about a person is transferred to his unknown traits.
• Sequence Effects:

• The primacy effect (first impression effect, familiarity effect) - the first information is overestimated in relation to the subsequent one.
• The effect of novelty - new information about the unexpected behavior of a well-known, close person is given more importance than all the information received about him previously.

• Role effect - behavior determined by role functions is taken as a personal characteristic.
• The effect of presence - the better a person knows something, the better he does it in front of others than in solitude.
• Advance effect - the absence of previously attributed non-existent advantages leads to disappointment.
• The effect of leniency - the leader exaggerates the positive traits of his subordinates and underestimates the negative ones (typical for a leader with a permissive and, to some extent, democratic style).
• The effect of hyper-demandingness - the leader exaggerates the negative traits of his subordinates and underestimates the positive ones (typical for a leader of an authoritarian style).
• The effect of physiognomic reduction - the conclusion about the presence of a psychological characteristic is made on the basis of appearance features.
• Beauty effect - a more attractive person is assigned more positive traits.
• The expectation effect - expecting a certain reaction from a person, we provoke him to it.
• In-group favoritism - “insiders” seem better.
• The effect of negative asymmetry in initial self-esteem—over time, there is a tendency toward the opposite of in-group favoritism.
• Presumption of reciprocity - a person believes that the “other” treats him the way he treats the “other.”
• The phenomenon of assumption of similarity - a person believes that “their own people” treat other people the same way as he does.
• Projection effect - a person assumes that others have the same qualities as him.
• The phenomenon of ignoring the information value of what did not happen - information about what could have happened, but did not happen, is ignored.
• Effect - attributing characteristics to oneself or another person.

Of course, no one can completely avoid mistakes, but everyone can understand the peculiarities of perception and learn to correct their mistakes.

Question 5

Ways to optimize communication:

Communication is the exchange of information between two or more people. When communicating, we make mutual deliveries of emotional experiences and value ideas. Gestures, facial expressions, intonation, the volume of our voice, clothing, demeanor, etc. The recipient of the information analyzes in order to find out what the interlocutor feels towards him: sympathy or antipathy. Depending on the results of such an analysis, he accepts or rejects the interlocutor as a communication partner.

Encroachments on self-esteem or clashes with any value concepts in communication lead to difficulties in perceiving the content of information that one of the interlocutors would like to convey to the attention of the other. Also in communication, the creation of a certain image of a person, a unique image, plays an important role.

It is known that in the field of business people, various negotiations play an important role. Non-directive negotiation methods are quite effective.

Providing the right feedback is important to clarify the meaning of the message. Feedback is the reaction of the perceiver (verbal or non-verbal) to the partner’s behavior. This information is not about what this or that person is, but more about ourselves in connection with this person. Sometimes contact with a communication partner is established very slowly. In order to create a friendly atmosphere in communication without much stress, allowing you to meaningfully deepen contact, you need to go through four stages:

1. Switching from communicating with yourself to communicating with your partner.
2. Establishing contact.
3. Maintaining contact while conveying the main message.
4. Breaking contact.

It should be noted that in the process of communication various obstacles associated with misunderstanding may arise. A barrier to understanding may be the nature of the perception of communication partners, determined by their personal attitudes. A significant barrier is also the semantic barriers associated with the difference in meanings invested by different people, but the same words, symbols (verbal and non-verbal attributes of communication).

1 page, 181 words

Key performance indicators of a teacher (through the eyes of students in grades 9–11)

Dear guys! We ask you to answer the questions in the questionnaire, which lists the professional and personal qualities of the teacher. Rate his work on a 5-point scale, where: 5 points – quality is almost always evident; 4 points – quality appears often; 3 points – quality is not always evident; 2 points – quality is rarely manifested; 1 point – there is practically no quality. Sign the form...

Although verbal symbols are fundamental for conveying ideas, non-verbal symbols play an important role in communication, which include facial expressions, gestures, glances, distance to a partner, etc. Different readings of them by different people can create problems in communication. Misunderstandings between people also arise due to the presence of poor feedback, which makes it possible to determine whether the message is truly interpreted in the sense originally intended.

Communication as a specific type of human activity is one of the leading factors in personality development. In this regard, optimization of communication takes on a very important role (diagnosis).

MAIN TYPES OF COMMUNICATION: IMPERATIVE, MANIPULATIVE AND DIALOGICAL

In social psychology and communication theory, three types of interpersonal communication are distinguished: imperative,

or directive, authoritarian;
manipulative;
dialogical (
Shevandrin N.I.
Social psychology in education. Part 1. M., 1995. P. 96, 97).

Dialogical (humanistic) communication is equal subject-subject personalized communication aimed at mutual knowledge and self-knowledge of communication partners. The main rule of dialogue is to perceive the partner as an equal, having his own position, and to establish trust in him. Dialogue is not an influence on the consciousness and behavior of a partner, but an equal interaction with him. Dialogue is genuine existential communication, the experience of an equal subject in the process of communication. Genuine dialogue does not allow communication as an “exchange of information” or “exchange of material and intangible values, “signs of approval and prestige” for the sake of profit, as interpreted in the exchange theory of the American sociologist George Homans

(1910–1989) and as is customary in the conditions of pragmatism of market relations. In modern mass society, the main deficit is the lack of genuine communication - communication for the sake of communication, which is confirmed by cross-cultural and sociological studies conducted in developed countries.

Dialogical communication is a process not of contemplative, but of “concrete active participation”

one unique subject to another unique subject in all its varieties, the process of
holistic empathy with him, both spiritual and practical
(
Dokuchaev I.I.
Introduction to the history of communication. Historiography and methodology for solving the problem. St. Petersburg, 2001. P. 5). Culturologist and semiotician
Yu.M.
Lotman, considering such cultural and historical forms of spiritual communication as the art of conversation, the culture of writing and family reading, called
true communication
(dialogue)
a person’s knowledge of man
and
a person’s knowledge of the world around him.
He considered communication as a means of transmitting forms of culture and social experience.

As a criterion for the effectiveness of dialogue communication, Russian sociologists T.M. Dridze and T.Z. Adamyants consider the degree to which mutual understanding has been achieved

between the participants in the dialogue.
At the same time, mutual understanding is not only the goal, but also a prerequisite for communication, which lies in the initial attitude towards understanding - communicative intention
as the “resultant” of the motive and goal of communication and interaction of people with the world around them.
The actor's predisposition to dialogue communication is manifested in openness towards the receiving party, i.e. in demonstrating explicit motives and goals of communication. If these conditions are absent, then unwanted communication failures
(“perception scissors”) occur, i.e.
mutual understanding is not achieved due to the fault of either one or the other party involved in communication, or both at the same time. Dridze identifies the following communication failures: pseudo-communication, in which messages are not crowned with adequate interpretations of communication intentions,” the communicator and the communicant not only each remain in their position, but also do not adequately understand each other’s intentions when entering into communication; quasi-communication, when a “ritual action” occurs, replacing communication and not implying dialogue according to the original condition ( Adamyants T.Z.
Social communication. M., 2005. P. 10–13;
Dridze T.M.
Social communication as textual activity in semiosociopsychology //Social Sciences and Modernity, 1996. No. 3).

Imperative (imperative - order: “you must”) communication is subject-object communication from top to bottom. Its goal is to achieve control over the behavior, attitudes, thoughts of a communication partner, forcing him to take certain actions; in this case, the partner is considered as an object of influence, but orders and instructions are given to him openly. Imperative communication is acceptable and even effective in such areas as military statutory relations, superior-subordinate relations, in extreme conditions when the strong will of the leader is needed, but parental, marital, friendly and pedagogical relationships cannot be based on imperative communication.

Manipulative communication is subject-object communication (horizontal - soft manipulation and vertical - aggressive manipulation), in which the influence on the communication partner is carried out covertly.

Manipulation is the influence on a person (a group of people) with the aim of inducing actions that are contrary to his (their) own interests.
Like the imperative, manipulation presupposes the desire to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of another person, but manipulative influence, unlike an open order, is carried out unnoticed and secretly. At the same time, the real goals and motives of manipulators almost always diverge from the declared ones. In manipulative communication, the partner is perceived not as a unique, free, equal person, but as a bearer of certain qualities and properties needed by the manipulator. The difference between manipulation
and the outwardly similar technique of the so-called
hidden influence
lies in the desire of the active party to achieve a one-sided gain.
The essence of manipulation lies in the apparent openness of information, the declaration of lofty goals, but at the same time there is something hidden, a certain mechanism that allows you to influence people without being detected ( Nikolaishvili G.G.
Social advertising: theory and practice. M., 2008. P. 99 , 100).

The features of manipulation have been studied by many psychologists, theorists of communology and communication studies. Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev

(1857–1927) considered manipulation by suggestion, in which “inoculation of ideas” is imperceptibly introduced into consciousness.
Unlike persuasion, suggestion is an influence on consciousness without external coercion, without rational thought. Manipulation is the control of a person’s consciousness and behavior, his attitudes and impressions, his motives and reactions. American psychologist E. Shostrom believed that Dale Carnegie’s concept of conflict-free communication, known to managers, is a “soft” manipulation technique that nevertheless helps in succeeding in business. Shostrom proposed a classification of manipulators, explained the reasons for manipulative behavior and proposed technologies to help recognize manipulators ( Shostrom E.
Anti-Carnegie, or Manipulator. M, 1992).
Moscow psychologist E.V.
Dotsenko, whose book on the socio-psychological phenomenon of manipulation has been republished several times and has become a textbook, studied the etymology of the concept “manipulation”, the interpretation of this term, technology and manifestations of manipulation in interpersonal and political communications.
In his opinion, a metaphor for manipulation can be called “submission” to control consciousness and behavior (as if a person did what he was told himself), “hidden” influence and “skillful” influence. “Manipulation is a knot in which the most important problems of the psychology of influence are woven together: the presence of power struggle, the problems of truth-false and secret-obvious, the dynamics of shifting responsibility, changing the balance of interests” ( Dotsenko E.L.
Psychology of manipulation: phenomena, mechanisms and protection M., 1997, p. 8).
Manipulative communication is the interception of initiative, distraction of the addressee’s attention, “playing” on various “strings of the soul”, i.e. on the significant motives of the manipulated. This is a desire to put him in a subordinate, dependent position. This is convincing you of the need to fight “for a place in the sun” or feigned ingratiation and the desire to please. This is the feeling that the manipulator is “darkening” ( Kazarinova I.V., Pogolsha V.M.
Interpersonal communication. St. Petersburg, 2004. P. 84. 85). These characteristics of manipulative communication will help you recognize the manipulator and avoid unpleasant communication with him.

About modern technologies and techniques for manipulating individual and mass consciousness,

used in the media, there are a number of interesting publications about the main “constructs” of socio-political manipulation (myths, stereotypes, images) (
Bogomolova N.N.
Social psychology of mass communication. M., 2008;
Kara-Murza S.G.
The power of manipulation. M., 2004;
Kara-Murza S.G.
Manipulation of consciousness. M., 2000;
Green R.
48 laws of power. M., 2007;
Osipov G.V.
Sociology and social myth-making. M., 2002;
Melnik G. S.
Mass-Media: Psychological processes and effects. St. Petersburg, 1996;
Gnatyuk O.L.
Current problems of studying television in the system of mass communication // Russia in the Global World. Social-theoretical almanac. No. 1. St. Petersburg, 2001;
Gnatyuk O. L.
Alarmism as a negative asymmetry, or a new function of the Russian media // Extremism and the media. Materials of the All-Russian Scientific and Practical Conference, November 23–24, 2006. St. Petersburg, 2006;
Berezkina O. P.
Socio-psychological technologies creating a political image. St. Petersburg, 1997;
Toshchenko Zh.T.
Time of myths and ways to overcome them // Socis.
2006. No. 1; Karmin A.S.
Psychology of advertising. St. Petersburg, 2004).

Question 6.

Definition, functions, boundaries, classifications of small groups:

A small group is a group in which social relations take the form of direct personal contacts. It is customary to talk about the upper and lower limits of a small group. In some opinions, it is believed that the lower limit of a small group is 2 people, but there is another point of view - 3 people. The upper limit of a small group is its maximum volume (50-+2).

The upper limit of the group is determined by criteria that are determined by the nature of the activity itself.

A team is a special qualitative state of a small group that has reached a high level of social psychological maturity. With this understanding, every collective is a small group, but not every small group can be a collective.

Classification:

1. A laboratory group is a group specially created to perform tasks under experimental conditions.
2. A natural group is a group that functions in real life situations.
3. A formal group is a group whose structure and relationships are established and regulated through administrative and legal procedures.
4. Membership group - in which the individual is actually a member.
5. A reference group is a group whose norms and values ​​a person shares and correlates his or her attitudes with them.

The belonging of each person to a certain group is associated with the realization of certain needs of the individual. A certain part of the life activity of this individual is manifested within the framework of the activities of the social group. In this group, the style of his behavior is determined, which in turn determines interpersonal relationships, the status of the individual (the position of the individual in society, occupied by him in accordance with his functions, gender, etc.) and the role of the individual (the totality of acquired and performed functions and accepted behavior).

3 pages, 1109 words

Individual, individuality, personality, personality structure, its multi-level and hierarchy

Contents Introduction 3 1 Individual and individuality as categories of psychology 5 1.1 The content of the concept of individual and its connection with the concept of individuality 5 1.2 Productive and instrumental manifestations of individuality 9 2 The concept of personality and its structure 12 1.2 The content of the concept of personality 12 2.2 The structure of personality 14 3 Methods of comprehensive assessment of personality 23 3.1 16-factor personality questionnaire R. ...

Depending on the style of behavior inherent in the majority of participants, a group decision can be made. A productive decision-making process includes the emergence of formations in the form of new goals, motives, attitudes, meanings, and methods of action.

The concept of a reference group. Referentometry:

A reference group is a group whose norms and values ​​a person shares, correlating his or her attitudes with it. The functions of the reference group include the formation of an individual’s sympathy and emotional preference for certain people. In such a group lie the main determinants of personality - assessments, actions, deeds.

The reference group has its own standards and beliefs, which is very important from the point of view of maintaining integrity, since each individual in the group identifies himself in relation to these standards and beliefs. When choosing and evaluating his actions, each individual uses a system of standards for a given group. This is necessary for the stability of the group. The individual also evaluates the behavior of other people and social events, which allows for subsequent reproduction in the group to occur.

Referentiality is a form of specific interpersonal relationships mediated by the content of group activity and expressing the subject’s dependence on other people based on the need for social orientation, acting as a selective attitude towards them in the context of the task of orientation in the object. Referentometry is used to check how much each person’s personal values ​​coincide with the values ​​of the group that determines the sociometric status of the individual.

Social and psychological characteristics of a small group:

Viewed through the dimensions or levels of a circular structure:

1. The sociometric dimension characterizes the special positions of an individual in the system of intragroup interpersonal relations.
2. The formal-status dimension gives an idea of ​​the subordination of an individual’s positions in the system of official relations, which is recorded in the organization’s civil schedule.
3. The communicative dimension is implemented in communication networks that record the subordination of the positions of individuals depending on their location.
4. Attitudes to power reflect the position of individuals depending on their ability to exert influence within the group.

There are several types of social power:

• rewarded power contributes to rewarding another person.
• Coercive power is exercised through coercion and punishment of another person.
• Ligative power is based on the assumption that one subject has the legitimate right to prescribe the behavior of another subject.
• referent power is based on relative sympathies and emotional preferences.
• Expert power is based on another person's superiority in specialized knowledge and competence in a particular activity.

1. Leadership is determined by the hierarchy of the position of individuals depending on their value potential and contributions to the life of the group.

Types of leaders:

• A functional leader is a competent leader who is task-focused. He fights to achieve the goals set by the group.
• An affective leader focuses on the relationships between group members.

Group leadership:

1. Leadership occurs primarily in an informal group, with appropriate relationships. The leadership is in official groups.
2. Leadership is predominantly manifested in small groups, the leader is closed in it, since he needs to maintain contact with a superior leader.
3. The leader emerges spontaneously and depends on changes in group mood.
4. The authority of a leader is based on his personal influence; responsibility is less indirect than that of a leader.

It is also very important to note that the characteristics of a small group include three areas:

1. Sociometric direction (J. Moreno).
   In society

Two structures of relations are distinguished. Macrostructure is the spatial distribution of individuals in various forms of their life activity. Microstructure is the structure of an individual’s psychological relationships with the people around him. All social conflicts are directionally related to the discrepancy between micro and macro structures. The task is to rearrange the macrostructure in such a way as to bring it into line with the microstructure.

1. Sociological direction (E. Mayo).
   Conducted

experiment on the effect of illumination on labor productivity. During the experiment, the lighting in the experimental group was increased, and an increase in labor productivity was observed; under normal lighting, productivity was not observed in the control group. At the next stage, the lighting conditions were canceled in the experimental group, and labor productivity continued to increase. As a result, growth began in the control group. Additional studies have been conducted. They increased wages, lighting, equipment, labor productivity grew when all this was canceled. Mayo realized that what plays a role here is awareness of the importance of what is happening, of one’s participation in some event. This was interpreted as a special feeling of stability - the need to feel like one belongs to a group.

1. School of Group Dynamics (Lewin).
   He created field theory.

The central idea was that the laws of social behavior should be sought through knowledge of psychological and social forces. The most important method of analyzing the psychological field was the creation in laboratory conditions of a group with given characteristics and the subsequent study of the functioning of this group. This process is called group dynamics.

Imperative communication (suppression)

Such communication is usually called authoritarian or autocratic, or even directive. In terms of its impact on the partner and interlocutor, it belongs to the group of destructive types of communication. The main purpose of the imperative (from Latin imperativus

- imperative, not allowing choice) of authoritarian communication is subordination, when one of the partners subjugates the other, controls his behavior, actions, thoughts, and also forces him to act in a direction beneficial to himself.

With such interaction, the individual characteristics and personal goals of the partner do not matter; he is seen as a faceless person, a means of achieving the other’s goal, as a mechanism that cannot work independently, so it must be turned on, it must be controlled. Moreover, the representative of the imperative contact does not hide his intentions, forcing the other to act according to the principle: “I said it!” An authoritarian coach usually prefers coercion to persuasion. Orders, decrees, orders, instructions, threats and regulations are used as means of influence. Typically, such a representative of the authoritarian style demonstrates distance, maintains hierarchy even during playful interactions, opposes himself to others, regardless of partners, creating a rather tense atmosphere of communication.

From a psychological point of view, an authoritarian style of interaction is unfavorable. The weakest point of this style of communication is the reluctance and inability to celebrate the successes of others, praise and support, and encourage partners. If such a leader turns out to be the leader of a group discussion, then, as a rule, its participants do not show initiative or creativity; most often they are passive in their statements and, especially, in making decisions. When training pedagogical communication, this style is inappropriate, since it causes increased psychological stress, which is harmful to health, provokes conflict situations, negative reactions and resistance, and destroys relationships in the group from the inside.

It is important for a coach to remember that aggressive behavior can be a sign of complexes. Some people, as a result of complexes, become repressed and hide in their shells. Others react much more openly and aggressively. As you practice, try to carefully determine what is causing this behavior. Some may be unhappy with some innovation, an idea you propose, or a new way of working. If possible, try to identify the real cause of the problem during your lunch break, i.e. informal communication.

Manipulation in Interpersonal Interactions

People's professional lives often resemble a child's game of tug of war. However, for a number of people, this simple procedure becomes a subtly calculated psychological manipulation, a tool for achieving power, moving up the career ladder - and all this in order to “pull power to their side.”

What is manipulation? In the Oxford English Dictionary, manipulation

) in the most general sense

defined as the handling of objects with a special intention, a special purpose, as manual control, as a movement made by the hands. In a figurative sense, manipulation is defined as the act of influencing or controlling people or things with dexterity, especially with disparaging connotations, such as covert control or manipulation. In the context of interpersonal relationships, the term “manipulation” began to be used only at the end of the 20th century. Many manipulators operate on the “Divide and Conquer” principle. The problem is aggravated by the fact that they not only cannot maintain their own relationships with people, but also have a detrimental effect on the relationships of others.

The object of manipulation, as a rule, is interpersonal interaction, and the subject is the psychological aspects of mechanisms and technologies of influence. In this context, the results of manipulation can be considered in a figurative sense, as the desire to “get your hands on”, “tame”, “lasso”, “catch on a hook” another, i.e. there is an attempt to turn a person into an obedient instrument, as if into a puppet. Experts in the psychology of manipulation identify three essential signs of psychological manipulation:

it contains the idea of ​​“getting your hands on” (someone or something);

its mandatory condition is the creation and preservation of the illusion of independence of decisions and actions of the recipient of the influence;

skill, mastery of the manipulator in performing techniques and techniques of influence.

The peculiarity of manipulation is that the manipulator seeks to hide his intentions, and how they will be interpreted depends on who tries to understand the manipulative moves and actions of the partner. The literature identifies three positions that people take in relation to the process of manipulation.

Manipulator position.

Most people use this role multiple times: as a leader seeking favor from superiors; the way a subordinate avoids responsibility for deficiencies in work; then as a specialist in educating others.

Position of the victim of manipulation.

Also a very common position. Almost any person can remember situations when he revealed insincerity, a “double game” on the part of his managers, colleagues, business partners, when his natural human needs were used incorrectly and annoyance, mental trauma, disappointment appeared due to the fact that he fell for someone’s fishing rod, trusted someone too much, suffered moral or psychological damage.

Position of an external observer.

A person who is not involved in manipulative interaction has to engage in fashion

analysis and reconstruction of its details and character: interpret information, imagine the situation for the participants, restore the necessary fragments, actions in order to choose your own scenario and pattern of behavior.

In pedagogical communication training, any manipulation action has several groups of characteristics that make it possible to distinguish it from among the actions truly aimed at effective interaction.

These include:

actual psychological, suggestive influence on another person;

the manipulator’s attitude towards another person as a means of achieving his goals;

the desire to obtain a one-sided gain;

the hidden, camouflaged nature of the impact itself and its direction;

playing on a partner’s weaknesses, a sophisticated appeal to instinctive aggressiveness and provoking biologically intense human needs (fear of death, sexual desire, physical pain, bodily injury, love for others, uncertainty and low self-esteem, etc.);

use of force, pressure, self-confidence;

motivation, motivational input;

mastery of manipulative actions.

Thus, manipulation is a type of psychological

influence, the brilliant execution of which leads to hidden arousal in another person of intentions that do not coincide with his actually existing desires. Manipulative communication is similar to imperative communication. Manipulation and imperative are united by the desire to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of another person. The only difference remains that during manipulative communication the interlocutor does not inform the partner about his true goals and intentions - they are hidden or replaced by others. This is especially common in business communications.

In modern conditions, precedents for violating the principle of psychological safety of people, including through manipulation, are characteristic of various types of activities, including pedagogical ones. Therefore, there is a need for public outcry, restoration of the system of spiritual values, authoritative expert opinions of professionals about the destabilizing impact of manipulators, their incorrect actions and behavior, as well as broader propaganda of bright, charismatic personalities who have achieved public recognition due to their leadership potential and talent for interacting with other people. .

Question 7

Mechanism of group dynamics:

1. The most important of the processes related to group

dynamics is the process of formation of small groups. The direct formation of a group and the psychological processes that make a group a group is group pressure on the individual.

1. Processes of group cohesion, leadership and acceptance

group decisions with the amendment that the entire set of processes of group management and leadership is not limited to the phenomenon of leadership.

1. Development of joint activities. It is worth mentioning here

Such a concept as a collective is where its formation takes place.

Phenomena of interaction between the individual and the group:

Mental phenomena express a person’s attitude towards various socially significant objects: surrounding people, groups, social institutions. Here we can distinguish two classes of characteristics of a phenomenon: characteristics of functions and characteristics of the internal composition and content of such phenomena.

• interpersonal orientation (assessed by management as the least

preferred employee).

• authoritarianism - directive behavior, desire for

control over the actions of participants.

• social sensitivity characterizes the ability

personality to reflect the states of other people. Includes empathy and social understanding.

• the desire for power correlates with the behavior of members

groups aimed at achieving prestigious intragroup positions.

• reliability - responsibility, self-confidence,

self-respect.

• emotional stability includes anxiety and

personal adaptation when one requirement increases and another decreases, is manifested by the individual in the group. An individual is more willing to change his views under the influence of a group.

Communication as interpersonal interaction

The basis of interpersonal interaction is the contact of individuals (two or more), implying a set of consistent and logically based reactions to each other’s actions.

Interpersonal interaction can take various forms , but it always leads to changes in behavior, the nature of relationships, the emotional state of opponents, etc.

Interpersonal communication is the communication of people, each of whom has their own unique specific qualities, which are revealed during communication.