Psychological phenomenon
It is already obvious to a person living in the third millennium how rapidly the world in which he lives is changing. Moreover, any newly arriving reality is invariably accompanied by certain changes. This requires changes in the people themselves. But admitting that you need to change yourself is much more difficult. In each case, a mechanism to counteract the newly created conditions begins to work in a person, which is called a psychological barrier. This is nothing more than a specific form of resistance to change syndrome, which has two sides. A person is afraid of losing his old, familiar, and at the same time he has a fear of what is unusual for him, new.
If we consider the concept of “barrier” in a broad sense, then it means a long partition that is placed as an obstacle on the way, that is, it is an obstacle. This word has a similar meaning in the field of psychology. In this science, it denotes those external and internal obstacles existing in a person that do not allow him to achieve his goal.
A psychological barrier is understood as a state of an individual in which his or her inadequate passivity manifests itself, becoming an obstacle to performing certain actions. In emotional terms, the mechanism of this phenomenon is the strengthening of attitudes toward low self-esteem and negative experiences. Psychological barriers also exist in the social behavior of an individual. They are expressed by communication obstacles, which manifest themselves in the rigidity of interpersonal and other attitudes.
How to solve the problem of barriers? This will allow us to create a broader framework for such a concept as “psychological attitude.” It is expressed in a person’s readiness to act and perceive, as well as interpret the object of thinking and perception or future events in one way or another.
What does the concept of attitude mean in psychology? This is a special vision that is the basis of human behavior and his selective activity. It is capable of regulating conscious as well as unconscious forms of personality activity in the emotional, cognitive and motivational spheres. Any attitude is formed thanks to the life experience accumulated by a person and can be both a colossal advantage and a significant limitation for him.
Concept and main types
Social maladjustment in psychology
Modern sociology and psychology include various definitions of social attitudes. Most often, Gordon Allport's interpretation is used to explain this term. According to the American psychologist, a social attitude is a psychological state of an individual in which the person is ready to behave in a certain way, according to past experience of “collision” with an object.
G. Allport
In the socio-psychological literature one can find 5 main types of social attitudes:
- Perceptual. Attitude is characterized by an individual's readiness to see what he wants to see.
- Situational, in which a person is ready to behave differently in relation to the same object, depending on the circumstances.
- Social, aimed at an object. This attitude is characterized by specific actions of the individual, regardless of the current situation.
- Generalized or general. The emergence of an attitude is influenced by a collection of identical objects.
- Private or partial. An attitude towards a certain object arises on the basis of the individual’s personal experience.
Depending on the modality, attitudes are:
- positive or positive;
- negative or negative;
- neutral;
- ambivalent.
History of discovery
What is an attitude in psychology? This is an internal quality of the subject, a psychological state not realized by him, which is based on his previous life experience, as well as certain activity and predisposition in a given situation. The setting determines and precedes the deployment of any of the existing forms of mental activity. Moreover, its presence allows a person to react in one way or another to a social or political event.
A similar phenomenon was discovered in 1888 by the German scientist L. Lange. Further in general psychology, the attitude resulted in a whole theory developed by D. N. Uznadze together with the students and followers of his school. The stages necessary for the formation of an attitude were most fully revealed thanks to such a concept as the contrast illusion. At the same time, along with the simplest ones, researchers have identified more complex types of attitudes - social, value orientations of a person, etc.
Considerable attention was paid to the installations by S.R. Rubinstein. They discovered that this phenomenon is closely related to the unconscious.
M. Rokeach also worked on the problem of attitudes in psychology. This researcher made a distinction between a person's attitudes and his values. The latter are beliefs that sometimes apply to several situations and objects. An attitude is a set of beliefs that relate to only one situation or object.
Development of the theory
At the early stage of its study, it was believed that an attitude in psychology is one of the forms of nervous activity that is not conscious to a person. This opinion existed for quite a long time. The psychology of the attitude of D. N. Uznadze also adhered to it. This theory continued to develop in this direction. The attitude in domestic psychology was considered by the Georgian school, which included followers and students of Dmitry Nikolaevich Uznadze. This scientist not only created the theory of the phenomenon under consideration, but also organized the development of this problem.
Uznadze explained the phenomenon of perception as a reflection of reality and the behavior of a living being. This can be briefly explained as follows. Attitudes occupy the most important place in the life of every person. They influence the perception of phenomena and objects, thinking, as well as the will of a person. Before the slightest movement of the soul takes place, it will necessarily be preceded by a certain attitude. And then the act of will, perception and cognition will certainly be influenced by a person’s life experience, the goal or mood set by him. However, errors cannot be excluded. This was made possible by the experimental foundations of attitude psychology. This is evidenced, for example, by the experiment with balls. The person was asked to estimate the size of these objects. And if at first he was shown balls of different sizes 10-15 times, then in his mind there was an opinion that they must be different. After the researcher offered him the same objects, the reaction did not change. The person continued to perceive the balls as different.
Over time, it became obvious that all the patterns and facts that were considered by the attitude theory are general psychological in nature. In this regard, this direction began to claim the status of a general psychological concept.
Clarification of the term
What is an attitude in psychology? This is a phenomenon that has a three-part structure, which includes:
- sensory image (effective component);
- actions related to the object of assessment (behavioral component);
- cognitive factor.
According to the opinion of D. N. Uznadze’s students - T. Sh. Iosebadze and T. T. Iosebadze, the following definition of attitude in psychology can be given. This phenomenon is characterized by scientists as a mode or a specific state inherent in a holistic object. That is, it determines the psychophysical organization of a person and its modification in each specific situation, as well as his readiness to perform certain activities necessary to satisfy current needs.
In psychology, an individual's attitude and behavior are considered to be a reflection of his internal (subjective) and external (objective) state. Moreover, such a property is considered an indirect link, a certain “principle of connection” that exists between the individual states of the subject, its elements and functions.
A clearer position on this issue belongs to Sh. N. Chkhartishvili. This scientist divided the installation into primary and fixed. Both of them are easily differentiated from each other, but have different functions and properties.
The principle of psychological forecast
Recently, scientists conducted an unusual psychological experiment: a number of participants were given photographs of people and asked to say which of them they liked and which they did not. After that, they were asked to conduct a telephone conversation with each person from the photographs. An amazing thing was noted: the conversation with the person I didn’t like and with those I liked were conducted radically differently.
In a conversation with a pleasant interlocutor, many jokes, a polite tone and interest were noted; with unpleasant interlocutors, people behaved withdrawn and ended the conversation almost instantly.
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Dispositional concept
There are other attitude theories in psychology. One of them is the dispositional concept of V. A. Yadov. This scientist proposed his approach when considering system-forming components that reflect human social behavior.
The concept under consideration is based on a hierarchical system of dispositions. In the triad proposed by D. N. Uznadze, V. A. Yadov replaced the installation with the concept of disposition. This is nothing more than a wide variety of states of readiness or predisposition of a person to perceive situations. V. A. Yadov considers personality dispositions in the form of a hierarchical system formed as a result of existing needs and conditions. In this system, the scientist identified three levels. They differ from each other in their different composition and ratio of their constituent elements (attitudes, needs, operating conditions). Each level of disposition predetermines the corresponding level of behavior. Let's look at each of them in more detail.
Fixed installations
They are the ones who are at the very first and at the same time lower level of disposition. What is an elementary fixed installation? In psychology, this is the determination of the subject’s specific reactions to an objective, current situation, as well as his perception of rapidly changing environmental influences. Elementary attitudes are formed based on the basic needs of physical existence, as well as the simplest situations. This or that behavioral readiness of the individual in this case is fixed by his previous experience.
Personality settings
Attitudes are sensations, feelings and beliefs that largely determine employees’ perception of the external environment, prompting them to plan certain actions and actions. Attitudes shape a way of thinking that affects our relationship to reality, just as a window frame limits our view. From our window we can see the events taking place on the street, but the size and shape of the frame do not allow us to appreciate the picture as a whole. In addition, our perceptions depend on the color and quality of the window glass, just as the emotional “coloring” of our attitudes influences our assessment of the work environment. OP proceeds from the fact that information about the nature of employees’ attitudes towards work, career and organization is vitally important for modern managers.
A personality’s attitude is its position, its attitude toward a certain behavior. Our values and positions are formed under the influence of the values and positions of other people and the world around us.
A correct understanding of the settings for managing people in an organization is important for several reasons. First, attitudes help a person adjust to his work environment. Secondly, attitudes help protect the image of “I” that exists in every person. Thirdly, attitudes are the basis that gives a person the opportunity to express his value orientations. Fourth, attitudes predict a person's behavior in the workplace.
In order for a person's attitudes to play a more effective role in predicting his behavior, it is necessary to minimize the influence of the environment.
Socialization of a personality involves changing its attitudes. However, there are two important obstacles to this process: escalation of commitment and lack of sufficient information.
1) Escalation of commitment is the tendency to insist on an erroneous course of action, after making a wrong decision and already when the obviousness of the error is clear even to the subject himself. The saying “defending the honor of the uniform” is appropriate here.
2) Lack of necessary information . Here people simply do not see sufficient reasons to change attitudes. If an employee does not know that his behavior, for example, reduces labor productivity, then he may remain with this attitude for a long time.
There are many ways to overcome obstacles to changing attitudes (this is schematically presented in Fig. 2.4.):
Impact of fear
.
The effectiveness of fear in changing attitudes depends on its strength. An employee can ignore a minor fear, but a major fear will prevent him from perceiving any beliefs. Moderate
fear is needed
Addressing inconsistencies between attitudes and behavior
. If a person, when applying for a job, made what at first seems to him to be an erroneous choice, then this will not last long. Subconsciously, his choice will begin to influence his attitudes. A person will try to change his attitudes in accordance with the choice made.
Fig.2.4. Ways to overcome obstacles to changing attitudes.
Influence of friends
. It is important for a person what people close to him think about his attitudes. Under the influence of their opinions, a person can adjust his attitudes.
Attracting to cooperation.
If an employee does not like his organization and has a negative attitude towards work, he must be invited to work together to change the situation. In joint work with colleagues, an employee can change his negative attitude.
Provision of information
. By receiving additional information about a situation or another person, an individual can change his opinion, and therefore his attitude.
The influence of one's own actions
. Behavior affects attitudes, and attitudes affect behavior. We stand up for what we believe in and believe in what we stand for. Using the conclusion of social psychologists about the influence of actions on attitudes to manage organizational behavior, we must remember that it applies to both good and bad actions.
Changing an attitude by transforming a statement into a belief
. When the speaker is not influenced by others, his statements eventually become beliefs.
Social attitudes
A similar phenomenon is detected at the second stage of the dispositional stage. In psychology, a social attitude is a person’s need to be included in contact groups. What behavioral situations arise in this case? They are social. Such attitudes take place based on the assessment of individual public facilities. Social situations are also taken into account. At the same time, the individual commits certain actions. They are an elementary, socially significant unit of behavior.
What else do we understand by the term described? A social attitude in psychology is nothing more than an individual’s stable attitude towards people, as well as towards all processes and events occurring in society. It is from this that a personality characteristic can be given.
The term “social attitude” itself in psychology has several meanings, which differ from each other in their characteristics. Thus, initially this definition meant the readiness of an individual to solve a given problem. Moreover, what was the object of the social attitude? This is the person himself, as well as the people in his environment, events and processes in society, objects of spiritual and material culture, etc.
Somewhat later, the term in question began to have a slightly different meaning. A social attitude in psychology is a stable attitude of one person or group of people towards something or someone. A careful study of this phenomenon made it clear that it is quite complex. At the same time, such an attitude began to be classified not only as a mental state of the individual, but also as its psychological property.
Behavioral Psychology: How Psychological Attitudes Affect People's Attitudes, Opinions, and Beliefs
Each person perceives and experiences external and internal processes in his own way. The same stimulus or situation affects different people differently . This approach provides the simplest and clearest answer to the question of how people's views, opinions and beliefs are formed and changed.
Each person in his own way, individually perceives and experiences both external and internal processes. Different people have different needs. Therefore, their settings are also different. Therefore, the same stimulus or situation affects different people differently.
This is most clearly seen in the example of commercial advertising.
According to experts in the field of mass communications, its effectiveness is considered high and even very high if it reaches from 1 to 10% of the target audience (Harris R., 2001). All this means that information that has an impact on some people has no effect on others.
In other words, people have attitudes that express their needs and contribute to the satisfaction of these needs. New needs lead to the formation of new attitudes; changing needs lead to changes in attitudes.
All installation functions can be grouped into types or blocks.
This classification was first carried out by D. Katz (1967), identifying five main functions of installations:
Self-defense function. Value-expressive function (self-representation). Social-regulatory function. Instrumental (utilitarian) function. Cognitive function.
Protection function I
For the first time in the history of psychology, the theory of psychoanalysis spoke about the mechanisms of ego defense. Sigmund Freud himself, and especially his daughter Anna Freud, identified and described quite a few types of psychological defenses (Freud A., 1999). Among them are the following: neurosis, rationalization, projection, denial, formation of the opposite reaction, etc.
The most typical example of a defense mechanism for the Self is rationalization: a person, prompted by some irrational, unconscious impulse, commits an act, but finds a completely rational explanation for it.
As a rule, the irrational impulse that motivates a person to perform certain actions comes from negative drives and feelings of a person - envy, anger, hatred, feelings of inferiority, worthlessness, etc. But in the self-attribution of an individual, the motivation for his actions acquires a noble , even more - sublime meaning. The person himself explains his actions solely with good intentions: he did so in the name of goodness, justice, and better considerations.
In those cases when a person’s self-awareness is developed to a certain extent and is periodically activated, he constantly resorts to ego-defense mechanisms to regulate self-esteem. At the same time, people follow the path of searching for the simplest ways to solve their problems. The easiest way to raise self-esteem is by humiliating and belittling other people - individuals or even entire social groups.
The need to increase self-esteem, thus, leads to the formation of corresponding attitudes - xenophobia, racism, sexism, nationalism, class hatred, etc. Fear, envy, a sense of one’s insignificance give rise to an attitude of striving for power, wealth, give rise to arrogance, disdain , swagger (for example, superior, national, social, etc.)
As a rule, people use not one, but many ego defense mechanisms at once. Rationalization goes side by side with projection (it’s not me, it’s him, the first). Projection is accompanied by denial.
Thus, some people may constantly feel the need to protect the Self and have corresponding attitudes; for others, a state of increased anxiety and low self-esteem may be temporary. Still others may only occasionally experience the need for ego protection. and then their attitudes that contribute to its satisfaction may also be short-lived.
Value-expressive function of attitude
Attitudes that express a person’s values usually satisfy his need for self-representation. Simply put, through these attitudes a person makes himself known to his social environment. It is clear that you can only express what you have, what you yourself are. Therefore, both the type and level of a person’s values are determined by the level of his personal development and the complexity of his self-concept.
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Image and style of life, manner of dressing, type of hairstyle, possession of certain things, expressed opinions, views, judgments, behavior - with all this a person expresses his Self. So, say, creating the image of a rich, successful person can be associated with an orientation towards enrichment and, accordingly, express the basic value of the individual.
In another case, it may be the creation of a sexually attractive image, which may also be a reflection of attitudes and values. But, of course, an individual can represent himself in other ways. He can, for example, actively express his public position, participate in some civil movements, support certain political parties. From the perspective of a functional approach, we can say that as many people as there are, so many needs.
Social-regulatory function of attitude
When interacting with other people, we, voluntarily or involuntarily, form our own ideas about them, in other words, we form attitudes towards them. We like some people, we don't like others.
It is important to note how our attitudes towards others help or hinder our social relationships. It is clear that if a person has a general negative attitude towards people, then his interactions with others will be minimized. And even those will begin to differ in tension.
But the fact of the matter is that people do not always declare their real attitudes towards their acquaintances, relatives, neighbors, co-workers, etc. Much more often, in relationships with their immediate circle, people use politeness, good manners, flattery, that is demonstrate certain generally accepted patterns of behavior.
But in almost any case (with rare exceptions) if a person wants to achieve favor, sympathy, affection from others, he demonstrates his agreement with them, commonality of views, opinions, etc. The similarity factor in most cases enhances social attractiveness.
Of course, the similarity of views and attitudes between people can be real, and not just manifest. Therefore, to establish social relationships, we are looking for like-minded people, people similar to us - in age, gender, social group, based on the fact that they have the same attitudes as us.
Instrumental (adaptive, utilitarian) function
The very name of the function indicates the aspect of behavior that learning theories consider, and specifically the principle of instrumental learning. In the broadest sense, its essence boils down to the fact that a person learns to achieve desired results (reward) and avoid undesirable ones (punishment).
Accordingly, people develop positive attitudes towards those objects that can help satisfy their needs, desires, drives, and negative attitudes towards objects that interfere with the achievement of what they want, causing frustration, as well as other undesirable consequences.
In this regard, the instrumental function is capable of overlapping or absorbing all other functions: ego-protective, value-expressive, regulatory and cognitive function. A person can win sympathy, admiration, friendship, favor, simply by expressing his views, opinions, value priorities, in a word, through the expression of his Self.
In the same way, he can avoid the manifestation of anger, aggression, and other negative feelings towards himself, using ego defense mechanisms, for example, repression, suppression, etc.
Function of cognition
In addition to other extremely necessary functions, attitudes play an extremely important role in people’s lives in structuring and organizing knowledge about the world around them and about themselves. With their help, we categorize and build our knowledge into a more or less coherent, logically linked system.
This does not mean that the world around us and ourselves are exactly as they are represented in our attitudes. The role of attitudes is not to search for truth, but to organize the picture of the world in our minds.
Without ready-made cognitive schemes, including attitudes, we would hardly be able to live at all, since everything that happens would seem to us to be complete chaos.
Attitudes thus help us organize the world using the principle of economy of thought and avoiding the dangers of information overload. Borrowing other people's experience, opinions, views, attitudes creates big social problems, but an attempt to refuse borrowing in order to create your own and only your own position is unrealistic. The unifying basis of all attitudes of any particular individual are the basic values that he professes or adheres to.
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To explain the reason for the emergence of pluralism and conflict of values in the attitudinal position of individuals, Anthony Pratkanis and Anthony Greenwald (1989) introduce the concepts of unipolar and bipolar attitudes. They believe that the ambiguity of an attitude towards a problem is explained by the fact that a person can consciously avoid one-sided information about it, trying to get acquainted with different and even contradictory information.
Monopolar attitudes are formed under the influence of information that uniquely evaluates the object of the attitude. If, say, your knowledge of a person is limited to the fact that he is smiling and polite, then, of course, you will insist that he is very sincere and nice.
The vast majority of people's attitudes are still monopolar. Having an already established attitude towards a certain object, people most often interpret new information about it in such a way that it is consistent with their existing ideas. Not to mention the fact that they may not even notice, perceive, or hear information that contradicts their views.
People are not only more willing, but also better at remembering information that confirms their views. D. Roberts and Nathan MacCoby (1985), who established this fact, believe that a person experiences pleasure when receiving confirmation of the correctness of his attitudes. After all, it increases his self-esteem.
Therefore, we make friends with those who like us, just as we like ourselves, we listen to the radio and watch television programs that confirm our attitudes, we read books, newspapers and magazines that are consistent with our views on reality. All this can be briefly defined as selectivity in the approach to information.
Paul Sweeney and Kathy Gruber demonstrated this bias in the 1972 Watergate scandal. It arose due to the fact that the election team of Richard Nixon, who won the election and became President of the United States, resorted to technical eavesdropping in the headquarters of Nixon's rival McGovern during the election campaign.
So, supporters of the victorious Nixon and the lost election of McGovern, as it turned out, were not equally interested in the scandal that broke out: Senate hearings, media reports, etc. If McGovern's supporters were interested in any information related to Watergate, then Nixon's supporters demonstrated a clear lack of interest in this matter (Zimbardo F., Leippe M., 2000).
Attitudes largely predetermine not only our vision of the world, but also our mood, vitality, and general psychological state. If the world seems dangerous and threatening to a person, then, of course, he will experience a constant feeling of anxiety and uncertainty. And vice versa: a radiant worldview will tune a person to lightness and carelessness. The optimal option, as always, lies between these two extremes.
***
As we see, certain functions of attitudes are predetermined by the personal characteristics of people. Therefore, before trying to change an individual’s attitude, it is necessary to know and take into account how it is characterized: is it determined by the person’s personal characteristics or by the subject and content itself?
Any attempt to change attitudes in large audiences, be it advertising or political propaganda, will be successful only with respect to some part of the people, but not with the entire audience. Moreover, here it is just as important to take into account and calculate the time of impact, since most people’s needs are temporary in nature and you can find yourself in an absurd position, trying to change those attitudes that no longer exist.
Functional theories thus explain the essence of two processes simultaneously—the formation and change of attitudes. Along with other theories, they give an idea of the role that attitudes play in the mental life of people and the impact they have on behavior.
Author: Nikolai Ivanovich Semechkin, Candidate of Philosophy, Head of the Department of Psychology, Far Eastern State University.
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General orientation of the individual
Let's consider the third level of disposition. It characterizes the general orientation of the individual into a certain sphere of social action. At this level, a person’s needs regarding his social connections become more complex. For example, an individual strives to join one or another area of activity, wanting to turn it into the main dominant sphere.
Here options such as professionalism, leisure or family may be considered. In this case, a person’s purposeful and consistent actions form the basis of his behavior in the area of activity where he pursues more distant and significant goals.
Value orientations
Let's consider the highest level of the disposition hierarchy. It is characterized by the formation of value orientations not only on the goals of life, but also on the means necessary to achieve the goals. The fourth level includes higher social needs. In this case, an important factor becomes a person’s life position, into which the individual’s self-awareness is transformed. This is nothing more than the principle of individual behavior, which is based on ideological attitudes, norms and ideals, social values, as well as readiness to act.
Thanks to the dispositional theory, direct connections were established between socio-psychological and sociological human behavior. At the same time, the highest forms of attitudes according to Yadov include:
- value orientations and life concept;
- generalized attitudes towards typical social situations and objects;
- predisposition to behavior and perception in existing conditions and in a given social and subject environment.
Value orientations are understood as the attitude of a person or group of people to the totality of spiritual and material goods, considered as objects or their properties, goals, as well as means to satisfy the needs of the individual or group. This concept is expressed in the meaning of life, in ideals, and manifests itself in the social behavior of people. Value orientations reflect the subject’s attitude to the current conditions of his existence, which is the result of a conscious choice of objects and items that are significant for the individual.
Attitudes and role behavior
Part of the process of socialization of an individual is the mastery of social roles, which is a prerequisite for the individual to “grow into” society.
Definition 3
A social role is a way of behavior of people depending on the position they occupy, corresponding to accepted norms.
During his life, any person enters into one or another social group, where he occupies a certain position and certain expectations are placed on him. In each group, a person must behave in accordance with the requirements of the group, i.e. act in different roles.
Note 1
A social role is a kind of stable pattern of behavior for a certain status, which answers the question - who is this person, what rights and responsibilities does he have.
Position in society determines only one status - main or integral.
When a person learns his social role, he learns the social standard of behavior and, as if from the outside, learns to evaluate himself and exercise self-control. Each social role leaves its mark on a person’s self-awareness, on his personality, for the fulfillment of which a person mobilizes the resources of his body and psyche.
When performing a role that does not correspond to the individual “I,” an intrapersonal conflict may arise.
Intrapersonal conflicts can be the following:
- the possibilities of one’s own “I” are lower than the possibilities of the social “role”;
- the social role is below the capabilities of the “I” and is unworthy and humiliating for a person
A person is driven mainly by internal motives, needs, and desires to master a particular role.
The social roles performed by a person in real life may have conflicting requirements, and in order to maintain the integrity of his “I”, there is a need for some kind of mechanism.
This mechanism is a functional organ and the personality itself, which allows one to integrate one’s “I”, carry out a moral assessment of one’s actions, and refuse one thing in favor of another. A developed personality can use role behavior as a tool for adaptation to a particular social situation.
A social role is a manifestation of the external “I”, and there is also an internal “I”. External behavior can be exemplary, the person himself can be a law-abiding citizen, but in his inner world he can be a rebel.
Based on social status and its requirements, a person’s role behavior is determined mainly by the social “I”, the demonstrative “I”, also expected by others, the reflected “I” and the real “I” of the individual.
The social roles performed by a person reinforce the corresponding patterns of behavior, opinions, views, attitudes, attitudes, and have a great influence on the style of speech, clothing, and lifestyle.
When social roles change, a change in behavior, attitudes, values, and personal attitudes may occur.
