Dependence of perception on personality characteristics and the nature of activity.

What is perception: definition of the concept

Perception is a cognitive process that forms in our minds a certain picture of the world around us.

Moreover, this picture is not objective, but is subjective in nature, that is, colored by personal impressions.

This process is also called perception , it begins with the action of our senses: vision, hearing, touch, etc., when we receive primary information about some object or phenomenon.

At this stage of perception, which is called the lower level, the cognition of the world by the simplest stops.

But vertebrates, for example, are capable of not only receiving certain information, but also analyzing it, evaluating it from the point of view of perceived danger, usefulness, or motivation for some activity or movement.

In humans this process is most fully expressed . Comprehension of information received from the senses has many stages and types.

Such a truly intelligent perception of the surrounding world is its highest level, it is called apperception.

The type of thinking based on the direct perception of objects is called visual-effective .

Adequacy: what is it?

What is the meaning of the word adequacy? Derived from the Latin adaequatus, meaning “equal.” Adequacy is compliance, identity with any criteria. This is a subjective concept. The same person can be adequate and inadequate in relation to different things, in the perception of different people, in different situations, etc. The term is used in psychology, psychiatry, sociology, pedagogy, as well as in the exact sciences. Let's take a closer look at what adequacy means in different sciences.

The concept of adequacy in different sciences

Psychology. A person’s adequacy is behavior, words, actions that do not cause condemnation and misunderstanding from others. In a broad sense, this is the conformity of an individual’s behavior with the model of behavior that is accepted in a particular society. In a narrow sense, this is the correspondence of behavior to a specific situation and the expectations of specific people.

Psychiatry. In psychiatry, adequacy is understood as the mental health of an individual, his ability to think rationally. More often they talk about the adequacy of perception. If a person looks at a circle and says that it is square, then this individual has an inadequate perception. This is an exaggerated example; there are more complex examples of adequacy and inadequacy of perception, which are largely related to a person’s subjective attitude to the situation. For example, we are talking about the inadequacy of sensations if a person is cold in a warm room.

In sociology you can often hear the concept of “adequacy of information”. It means that the image that appears when reading or listening to information corresponds to reality and to the events that are described.

An example of a term in pedagogy: adequacy of teaching. It means that the training program corresponds to the qualities and skills that a graduate should have. This also means that the program corresponds to the age, level of development, experience, knowledge, and skills of the students.

The concept of adequacy is found not only in the humanities, but also in technical sciences. In mathematics, adequacy means a result that does not go beyond the schemes and boundaries of the theory. That is, if the experimental results confirm the primary hypothesis, then they are considered adequate. Otherwise, the result causes scientists to question their beliefs or reconsider their research design. Technicians call a model adequate if its operation justifies the calculations, that is, it works without failures, adequately.

Examples

An example from psychology. The norm of behavior at the table is as follows: you need to sit on a chair, put a plate on the table and carefully eat the food offered. If a person sits on a table, puts his feet up on a chair and uses his hands to collect food from other people’s plates, then he will be called inadequate.

Another example of adequacy from psychology and sociology: when a person comes to visit, he greets the hosts and behaves modestly. If the same guest immediately looks into the refrigerator, undresses, and lies down on the bed, then this is perceived as inadequacy. But on the other hand, such liberties will be adequate in the home of a loved one (if he once allowed it).

An example from psychiatry. A healthy person sees that a chair is a chair, it stands on the floor, does not move anywhere, does not attack anyone. And a schizophrenic may dream that the chair is looking at him and wants to cause harm. Because a schizophrenic has a distorted perception of reality.

Physiological basis

What is the psychophysiology of perception? The processes that occur during a person’s cognition of the surrounding world (this is an almost continuous process) can be recorded at the level of sensory organs , nerve fibers and the central nervous system; they are called the physiological basis of perception.

The mechanism of their action can be clearly explained as follows:

• stimuli at the nerve endings of the sense organs transmit the received information to the cerebral cortex;
• then it enters the projection zones of the brain, which are called sensory;
• a feeling of the information received and its comprehension is created.

Any “malfunction” of this chain can disrupt the integrity of perception.

For example, loss of vision , as a property of a sensory organ, limits the resulting image in terms of its color, volume, shape, etc., and a failure at the sensory level will lead to the fact that a person will perceive what he sees only as a set of light and color spots.

The nerve connections through which the process of perception works come in 2 directions:

• formed after the influence of one analyzer - for example, the noise of water in a river, which we do not yet see, affects only our hearing aid;
• inter-analyzer - figuratively speaking, they arise when we approach the river, here a whole complex of sensations comes into force, including associative ones.

Principles of perception

Once you see optical illusions, you are no longer sure how accurately your brain processes information about the surrounding reality. It is easy to explain the success of such tricks if you know the long-studied principles or laws of perception:

1. Grouping . The mind continuously strives to establish correlations between perceived objects. It automatically classifies objects located nearby, moving in the same direction, or similar in shape or other characteristics to one group and links them into one class.
2. Isolating background and figure . If attention is directed to a specific object, then everything that surrounds it is perceived by the brain as a background. As soon as you shift your focus to something else, the recent object of knowledge will instantly merge with the background environment.
3. Completion . This principle manifests itself in the fact that our consciousness strives to complement the missing fragments in the perceived object in order to obtain a complete image.

Currently reading: How to become happy in just 5 minutes a day

Functions

During a person’s lifetime, perception performs several main functions :

• general orientation;
• assessment of the location of individual objects and phenomena;
• the cognitive function already includes the discovery of the essence of objects and phenomena, their interconnectedness;
• activity control;
• regulation of activities.

The main properties of perception include:

• objectivity - a person is aware of the object he sees as a separate body;
• integrity , - individual properties of objects necessarily (if we are talking about apperception) add up to a visual image;
• structure is not a mechanical sum of sensations, but their correlation over a period of time: when listening to music, we perceive not individual notes, but an evolving melody;
• constancy - thanks to this quality, a person perceives moving objects as constant in their form and properties;
• meaningfulness - at this stage the final formation of the image of an object and phenomenon and its place in the surrounding world occurs.

Tactile agnosia

This disorder is associated with damage to the parietal hemisphere of the human brain, which inhibits tactile perception of information. Tactile agnosia involves the inability to identify various objects as a whole while maintaining the perception of its individual features. For example, when feeling any object placed in the patient’s left or right hand, one may notice obvious difficulties.

With tactile agnosia, it can be difficult to determine when touching an object its weight, size, shape and material from which it is made. Today, a common variant of tactile agnosia is dermoalexia. It is associated with damage to the left parietal region, which is characterized by the inability to perceive various symbols (these can be letters, numbers or signs), which are “drawn” by a specialist on the patient’s hand.

The essence of tactile agnosia is the impairment of recognition of various objects and touching them. There are several types of this disorder:

• finger – with this disorder the patient does not feel his fingers;
• somatoagnosia – impaired recognition of body parts and their location;
• object - with this type of tactile agnosia, a person is unable to determine by touch the properties of an object, such as its shape, size, material, despite the fact that the visually ill person can describe this object.

Theories

There are several scientifically based theories of perception that have their own valid arguments:

1. Associative , its prominent representative was G. Helmholtz - according to this theory, the image of objects and phenomena is formed on the basis of associative sensations.
2. Gestalt theory - its adherents, on the contrary, believed that we perceive each object as a separate whole, without connection with past experience and associations.
3. Gibson's theory - its adherents were confident that perception cannot be objective, it depends on the degree of human activity; movement, in their opinion, is the basis of perception.
4. According to Hebb's theory , perception is not an innate trait and has no innate elements at all; a person learns to understand the world gradually, first learning the details, and then the whole.
5. The theory of perception by J. Piaget , who closely linked perception with the development of intelligence, is based almost on this

Laws and patterns

Patterns of perception are classified as follows:

• as already noted, the development of perception at its highest point ends with apperception - the dependence of perception on the personality of the individual;
• perception directly depends on the motives of actions and tasks of human activity;
• correct relationship between figure and background, the background is not the main object of perception;
• the perception of complex elements of an object or phenomenon occurs against the background of their constant comprehension .
• the perception itself can change , depending on the attitude of action received by a person;
• Emotions play a big role
• may also arise during perception , for example, when viewing contour images;
• perception is related to speech .

Laws of perception:

• it is connected not only with the senses, but also with the work of muscles and movements;
• objectivity of perception depends on the continuity of the flow of information received;
• having connected with thinking, the image becomes stable in consciousness;
• The formation of the image depends on the life experience gained earlier.

What allows a person to adequately perceive the world around him?

When studying the peculiarities of perception of various objects, the question involuntarily arises: what facilitates and what complicates the possibility of adequate perception? One of the factors ensuring the adequacy of perception is the presence of feedback. If it is not there, then the relationship between the signals of the analyzers is not established. Illustrating this fact, R. M. Granovskaya in her book “Elements of Practical Psychology” gives as an example the feeling of a person who perceives the world around him through special distorting glasses.

“Such glasses can reverse the right and left or upper and lower parts of the retinal image. In this case, one of the parts can shrink and the other expand. A person who wears such glasses will perceive the world around him accordingly! the picture of the surrounding world observed by him will also be distorted. If the subject, while wearing such glasses, did not have the opportunity to practically interact with the environment, then his perception either did not change at all (remained inadequate), or the change was only insignificant.

When subjects wearing distorting glasses were deprived of the opportunity to perform habitual self-care actions, placed in a chair where they could neither manipulate objects, nor write, nor read, and when moving they were always accompanied by an experimenter, they continued to see the world distorted, for example, upside down. But if a person actively interacted with surrounding objects, then, as experiments by Stratton and other researchers showed, even when wearing such glasses, his undistorted perception of the world can be restored.

When the subjects wearing such glasses, despite the difficulties, were forced to continue to engage in normal activities - walking the streets, writing, etc., then at first their actions were extremely unsuccessful. However, gradually they adapted to the distorted perception, and after that a moment came when the perception was rebuilt and they began to see the world correctly. For example, the famous psychologist Köhler put himself in the position of the test subject - he wore glasses with wedge-shaped lenses for four months, and after just six days his correct coordination of movements was so restored that he was able to ski.

The factor facilitating the transition to correct vision in all cases was the obvious presence of gravity. If the subject was given a weight suspended on a thread, he adequately perceived the position of this weight relative to the thread, despite the fact that other objects might still remain upside down. Familiarity with the object in the past also accelerated the transition to intelligent vision. For example, a candle that appeared upside down while it was not burning was perceived correctly as soon as it was lit. It is easy to see that these factors indicate the enormous importance of feedback in the formation of an adequate image.

The role of feedback in the restructuring of perception is convincingly revealed in Kilpatrick’s experiments on the perception of spatial relationships in deformed rooms (Fig. 1). These experiments consisted of demonstrating deformed rooms, designed in such a way that at a certain position of the observer they were perceived as normal: the configuration that arose from them on the retina was identical to that obtained from ordinary rooms. Most often, rooms were shown whose walls formed acute and obtuse angles. The observer sitting at the viewing hole nevertheless perceived such a room as normal. On its back wall he saw a small and a large window. In reality, the windows were equal in size, but due to the fact that one wall was located much closer to the observer than the other, the near window seemed larger to him than the far one. If then familiar faces appeared in both windows, then the observer was shocked by the inexplicable difference in the size of the faces, the monstrous size of the face in the “far” window.

Rice. 1. Explanations in the text

A person can, however, gradually learn to adequately perceive such a distorted room if it serves as the object of his practical activity. So, if he is asked to throw a ball into different parts of the room or is given a stick with permission to touch the walls and corners of the room with it, then at first he cannot accurately perform the indicated actions: his stick sometimes unexpectedly bumps into a seemingly far away wall, then nothing unable to touch the nearby wall, which strangely recedes. Gradually the actions become more and more successful, and at the same time the person gains the ability to adequately see the actual shape of the room.”

Based on: Granovskaya R. M. Elements of practical psychology. - St. Petersburg: Svet, 1997.

Convergence plays a significant role in the perception of the distance of objects, or spatial depth.

and
divergence of
the eyes, because for a clear perception of objects it is necessary that their image falls on the corresponding (corresponding) points of the retina of the left and right eyes, and this is impossible without convergence or divergence of both eyes. Convergence refers to the bringing together of the visual axes of the eyes due to the rotation of the eyeballs towards each other. For example, this happens when the gaze moves from a distant object to a close one. During the reverse transition - from a close to a distant object - a divergence of the eyes is observed, i.e., turning them to the sides, separating the visual axes. Both convergence and divergence are caused by contraction and relaxation of the eye muscles. Therefore, they are accompanied by certain motor sensations. Although we usually do not notice these sensations, they play a very significant role in the perception of space. Thus, with the convergence of the eyes, a slight disparity of images occurs, a feeling of distance of the object or a stereoscopic effect appears. With a greater disparity of the retinal points of both eyes on which the image falls, double vision of the object occurs. Thus, impulses due to the relative tension of the eye muscles, which ensure convergence and displacement of the image on the retina, are an important source of information for the sensory and perceptual areas of the cerebral cortex and the second component of the mechanism of spatial perception.

Along with sensations from convergence and divergence of the eyes (when moving the gaze from a distant object to a close one and back), we receive sensations from eye accommodation. The phenomenon of accommodation is that the shape of the lens changes when objects move away and approach. This is achieved by contracting or relaxing the muscles of the eye, which entails certain sensations of tension or relaxation that we do not notice, but which are perceived by the corresponding projection fields of the cerebral cortex.

The perception of space is not limited to the perception of depth. In the perception of space, an important role is played by the perception of the location of objects in relation to each other. The fact is that when the object moves away significantly, convergence and divergence cease, but the space we perceive is never symmetrical; it is always more or less asymmetrical, that is, objects are located above or below us, to the right or left, and also further from us or closer to us. Therefore, it often happens that we judge distance by indirect signs: one object covers another, or the contours of one object are more noticeable than the contours of another.

In addition, it should be noted that the different positions of objects in space are often of primary importance for a person, even more than the perception of the distance of an object or the depth of space, since a person does not simply perceive space or evaluate the position of objects, he orients himself in space, and for this he must receive certain information about the location of objects. For example, when we need to navigate the location of rooms, save a path plan, etc. However, there are situations when a person does not have enough information about the location of things. For example, a metro station has two exits. You need to go to a certain street. How will you navigate if there are no auxiliary signs? To ensure orientation in space, additional mechanisms are needed. Such an additional mechanism for a person is the concepts of “right” and “left”. With the help of these abstract concepts, a person carries out a complex analysis of external space. The formation of these concepts is associated with the identification of the leading hand; for most people it is the right hand. It is quite natural that at a certain stage of ontogenesis, when the leading right hand has not yet been identified and the system of spatial concepts has not been mastered, the sides of space continue to be confused for a long time. These phenomena, characteristic of certain stages of normal development, manifest themselves in the so-called “mirror writing”, which is noted in many children of three or four years old and is delayed if the leading (right) hand for some reason does not stand out.

Such a complex set of mechanisms that ensure the perception of space requires, naturally, an equally complex organization of apparatuses that carry out the central regulation of spatial perception. Such a central apparatus is the tertiary zones of the cerebral cortex, or “overlap zones,” which combine the work of the visual, tactile-kinesthetic and vestibular analyzers.

8.8. Perception of motion and time

The perception of motion is carried out thanks to a very complex mechanism, the nature of which has not yet been fully elucidated. What is the complexity of this issue? After all, it can be assumed that the perception of the movement of objects is due to the movement of the image across the retina. However, this is not quite true. Imagine that you are walking down the street. Naturally, images of objects move across your retina, but you do not perceive objects as moving - they are in place (this phenomenon is called position constancy).

Why do we perceive the movement of material objects? If an object moves in space, then we perceive its movement due to the fact that it leaves the area of ​​​​best vision and this forces us to move our eyes or head in order to fix our gaze on it again. In this case, two phenomena occur. Firstly, the displacement of an object relative to the position of our body indicates to us its movement in space. Secondly, the brain records the movement of the eyes following the object. The second is especially important for the perception of movement, but the mechanism for processing information about eye movement is very complex and controversial. Will a person be able to perceive movement if his head is fixed and his eyes are immobilized? Ernst Mach immobilized the subjects' eyes using a special putty that prevented them from turning their eyes. However, the subject experienced a sensation of objects moving (the illusion of objects moving) every time he tried to turn his eyes. Consequently, it was not the eye movement that was recorded in the brain, but the attempt to move the eyes, i.e., for the perception of movement, it is not afferent information about eye movements (a signal about eye movement) that is important, but a copy of efferent information (commands to move the eyes).

However, the perception of movement cannot be explained by eye movement alone; we perceive movement in two opposite directions simultaneously, although the eye obviously cannot move in opposite directions at the same time. At the same time, the impression of movement can arise in the absence of it in reality, for example, if, after short time pauses, a series of images reproducing the phases of the object’s movement are alternated on the screen (Fig. 8.11). This is the so-called stroboscopic effect, for which individual stimuli must be separated from each other by certain periods of time. The pause between adjacent stimuli should be at least 0.06 s. In the case when the pause is half as long, the images merge; in the case when the pause is very long (for example, 1 s), the images are perceived as separate; the maximum pause at which the stroboscopic effect occurs is 0.45 s. It should be noted that the perception of motion in cinema is based on the stroboscopic effect.

Rice. 8.11. The principle of the stroboscopic effect. Explanations in the text

Names

Wundt Wilhelm (1832-1920) - German psychologist, physiologist, philosopher and linguist. He put forward a plan for the development of physiological psychology as a special science that uses the method of laboratory experiment to divide consciousness into elements and clarify the natural connection between them. In 1879, Wundt founded the world's first experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, which became an international center for research in this field. In this laboratory, sensations, associations, attention, reaction time to various stimuli were studied. Wundt attempted to study higher mental processes, but, in his opinion, it should be carried out using other methods (analysis of myths, rituals, religious ideas, language), which was reflected in his ten-volume work “Psychology of Nations” (1900-1920).

Wundt made a significant contribution to the development of world psychology. Many subsequently famous psychologists studied with him, including E. Titchener, F. Kruger, G. Münsterberg, St. Hall, as well as V. M. Bekhterev and N. N. Lange.

In the perception of movement, indirect signs undoubtedly play a significant role, creating an indirect impression of movement. The mechanism for using indirect signs is that when certain signs of movement are detected, they are intellectually processed and a judgment is made that the object is moving. Thus, the impression of movement can be caused by an unusual position of its parts for a stationary object. Among the “kinetic positions” that evoke the idea of ​​movement are an inclined position, less distinct outlines of an object, and many other indirect signs. However, it is still impossible to interpret the perception of movement as an intellectual process lying outside the boundaries of perception itself: the impression of movement can arise even when we know that there is actually no movement.

All theories of motion perception can be divided into two groups. The first group of theories derives the perception of movement from elementary, successive visual sensations of individual points through which movement passes, and states that the perception of movement arises as a result of the fusion of these elementary visual sensations (W. Wundt).

The theories of the second group argue that the perception of movement has a specific quality that is not reducible to such elementary sensations. Representatives of this theory say that just as, for example, a melody is not a simple sum of sounds, but a qualitatively different whole from them, so the perception of movement is irreducible to the sum of the elementary visual sensations that make up this perception. From this position comes, for example, the theory of Gestalt psychology, a well-known representative of which is M. Wertheimer.

The perception of movement is, according to Wertheimer, a specific experience, different from the perception of moving objects themselves. If there are two successive perceptions of an object in different positions (a) and (b), then the experience of movement does not consist of these two sensations, but connects them, being between them. Wertheimer calls this experience of movement the phi phenomenon.

.

It should be noted that quite a lot of special work has been carried out to study the problem of motion perception from the perspective of Gestalt psychology. For example, representatives of this direction posed the question: due to what conditions, when spatial relations change in our field of vision, some of the perceived objects seem to be moving, while others seem motionless? In particular, why does it seem to us that the moon is moving, and not the clouds? From the standpoint of Gestalt psychology, those objects that are clearly localized on some other object are perceived as moving; it is the figure that moves, not the background against which the figure is perceived. Thus, when the moon is fixed against the background of clouds, it is perceived as moving. They showed that of two objects, the smaller one usually seems to move. The object that undergoes the greatest quantitative or qualitative changes during the experiment also seems to move. But the studies of representatives of Gestalt psychology did not reveal the essence of the perception of movement. The main principle governing the perception of movement is the understanding of the situation in objective reality on the basis of all past human experience.

The perception of time, despite the importance of this problem, has been studied much less than the issue of the perception of space. The difficulty in studying this issue lies in the fact that time is not perceived by us as a phenomenon of the material world. We judge its course only by certain signs.

The most elementary forms are the processes of perception of duration and sequence, which are based on elementary rhythmic phenomena known as the “biological clock.” These include rhythmic processes occurring in the neurons of the cortex and subcortical formations. For example, alternating sleep and rest. On the other hand, we perceive time when performing any work, that is, when certain nervous processes occur that ensure our work. Depending on the duration of these processes, the alternation of excitation and inhibition, we receive certain information about time. From this we can conclude that in the study of time perception, two main aspects need to be taken into account: the perception of temporal duration and the perception of temporal sequence.

Estimating the duration of a time period largely depends on what events filled it. If there were a lot of events and they were interesting to us, then time passed quickly. And vice versa, if there were few events or they were not interesting to us, then time passed slowly. However, if you have to evaluate past events, then the assessment of duration is the opposite. We overestimate time filled with various events; the time period seems longer to us. And vice versa, we underestimate time that is not interesting to us; the time period seems insignificant to us.

Estimation of the duration of time also depends on emotional experiences. If events evoke a positive attitude towards oneself, then time seems to pass quickly. Conversely, negative experiences lengthen the time period.

A characteristic feature of time is its irreversibility. We can return to the place in space from which we left, but we cannot return the time that has passed. Thanks to this, we perceive the passage of time, establishing, in turn, an objective order for the irreversible sequence of events. Moreover, we establish this order on the basis of the causal dependencies of the succession of one event after another.

In addition to establishing the order or sequence of preceding and subsequent events, we use time localization, that is, we know that such and such an event must occur at a given time. Time localization is possible because you and I use certain values ​​of time intervals. Such intervals can be a day, a week, a month, a year, a century, etc. The existence of these intervals is possible because a certain change of events alternates in them, for example, sunset and sunrise. So, by the number of sunrises we can judge how many days, weeks, months, years have passed.

Since time is a directed quantity, a vector, its unambiguous definition presupposes not only a system of units of measurement (second, minute, hour, month, century), but also a constant starting point from which to count. At this point, time is radically different from space. In space, all points are equal. There must be one privileged point in time. The natural starting point in time is the present, which divides time into the past that precedes it and the future that follows. It alone seems to be immediately given as something present; from it the gaze is directed to the past and the future.

However, the present also has its position in a series of mediated events, that is, there are points from which time is calculated. Such a point for a specific person is his birth, for humanity - a certain generally accepted point, for example, the birth of Jesus Christ.

Thus, in a person’s perception of time, it is necessary to distinguish two aspects: subjective and objective-conditional. The subjective aspect is associated with our personal assessment of passing events, which, in turn, depends on the filling of a given time period with events, as well as their emotional coloring. The objective-conditional aspect is associated with the objective course of events and a series of conditionally contractual starting points, or time intervals. If the first aspect reflects our sense of time, then the second aspect helps us navigate time.

Control questions

1. Describe perception as a cognitive mental process.

2. What is the relationship between sensation and perception?

3. What do you know about the theories of pattern recognition?

4. Tell us about the physiological basis of perception. What is the reflexive essence of perception?

5. Describe the basic properties of perception.

6. What do you know about illusions of perception?

7. What classifications of forms of perception do you know?

8. What are the manifestations of individual differences in perception?

9. Reveal the basic patterns of development of perception in children.

Recommended reading

1. Ananyev B. G.

. On the problems of modern human knowledge / USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Psychology. - M.: Nauka, 1977.

2. Ananyev B. G.

., Rybalko E. F. Features of the perception of space in children. - M.: Education, 1964.

3. Wekker L. M

. Mental processes: In 3 volumes. T. 1. - L.: Leningrad State University Publishing House, 1974.

4. WengerL. A

. Perception and learning: Preschool age. - M.: Education, 1969.

5. Velichkovsky B. M., Zinchenko V. P., Luria A. R.

. Psychology of perception: Textbook. allowance. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1973.

6. Vygotsky L. S.

. Collected works: In 6 volumes. T. 2.: Problems of general psychology / Ch. ed. A.V. Zaporozhets. - M.: Pedagogy, 1982.

7. Gelfand S. A

. Hearing. Introduction to psychological and physiological acoustics. - M., 1984.

8. Gibson J

. Ecological approach to visual perception / Trans. from English under general ed. A. D. Logvinenko. - M.: Progress, 1988.

9. Gregory R. L

. Eye and brain. Psychology of visual perception / Transl. from English - M.: Progress, 1970.

10. Zaporozhets A. V

. Selected psychological works: In 2 volumes. T. 1: Mental development of the child / Ed. V. V. Davydova, V. P. Zinchepko. - M.: Pedagogy, 1986.

11. Krylova A. L

. Functional organization of the auditory system: Textbook. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1985.

12.Leontyev A. N

. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. — 2nd ed. - M.: Politizdat, 1977.

13. Lerner G. I

. Psychology of perception of three-dimensional forms (based on images). - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1980.

14. Logvinenko A. D

. Psychology of perception: Educational and methodological manual for students of psychology departments of state universities. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1987.

15. Logvinenko A. D

. Visual perception of space. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1981.

16. Logvinenko A. D

. Sensory foundations of space perception. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1985.

17. Luria A. R

. Sensations and perception. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1975.

18. Neisser U

. Cognition and reality: The meaning and principles of cognitive psychology / Transl. from English under general ed. B. M. Velichkovsky. - M.: Progress, 1981.

19. Nemov R. S.

. Psychology: Textbook for students. higher ped. textbook institutions: In 3 books. Book 1: General fundamentals of psychology. — 2nd ed. - M.: Vlados 1998.

20. General psychology: Course of lectures / Comp. E. I. Rogov. - M.: Vlados, 1995.

21. Rock. AND

. Introduction to visual perception. - M.: Pedagogy, 1980.

22. Rubinstein S. L

. Fundamentals of general psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 1999.

23. Fress P., Piaget J

. Experimental psychology / Sat. articles. Per. from French: Issue. 6. - M.: Progress, 1978.

Chapter 9. Presentation

Summary

Definition of representation and its main characteristics . Representation as a mental process of reflecting objects or phenomena that are not perceived at the moment. Types of representations: representations of memory, representations of imagination. Mechanisms of the emergence of ideas. The main characteristics of representations: clarity, fragmentation, instability, impermanence. Representations as a result of image generalization. General and specific views.

Types of performances . Classification of representations by modality: visual, auditory, motor, tactile, olfactory, etc. Classification of representations by content and degree of generalization. Characteristics of certain types of representations.

Individual characteristics of performance and its development . Individual characteristics of presentation: visual type, auditory type, motor type. Stages of formation of ideas in people. Conditions for the development of ideas.

Primary memory images and perseverative images . General concept of primary memory images. General concept of persevering images. Similarities and differences between memory images and persevering images.

9.1. Definition of a view and its main characteristics

We receive primary information about the world around us through sensation and perception. The excitement that arises in our senses does not disappear without a trace at the very moment when the effect of stimuli on them ceases. After this, so-called sequential images appear and persist for some time. However, the role of these images for a person’s mental life is relatively small. Much more important is the fact that even after a long time after we perceived an object, the image of this object can be again - accidentally or intentionally - evoked by us. This phenomenon is called "performance".

Thus, representation is a mental process of reflecting objects or phenomena that are not currently perceived, but are recreated on the basis of our previous experience

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The basis of representation is the perception of objects that took place in the past. Several types of representations can be distinguished. Firstly, these are representations of memory, i.e. representations that arose on the basis of our direct perception in the past of any object or phenomenon. Secondly, these are representations of the imagination

. At first glance, this type of representation does not correspond to the definition of the concept of “representation”, because in the imagination we display something that we have never seen, but this is only at first glance. Imagination does not arise out of nowhere, and if we, for example, have never been to the tundra, this does not mean that we have no idea about it. We have seen the tundra in photographs, in films, and also read its description in a geography or natural history textbook, and based on this material we can imagine the image of the tundra. Consequently, imagination representations are formed on the basis of information received in past perceptions and its more or less creative processing. The richer the past experience, the brighter and more complete the corresponding idea can be.

Ideas do not arise on their own, but as a result of our practical activity. Moreover, ideas are of great importance not only for the processes of memory or imagination, but they are extremely important for all mental processes that ensure human cognitive activity. The processes of perception, thinking, and writing are always associated with ideas, as well as memory, which stores information and thanks to which ideas are formed.

Representations have their own characteristics. First of all, representations are characterized by clarity

. Representations are sensory-visual images of reality, and this is their closeness to images of perception. But perceptual images are a reflection of those objects of the material world that are perceived at the moment, while representations are reproduced and processed images of objects that were perceived in the past. Therefore, representations never have the degree of clarity that is inherent in images of perception - they, as a rule, are much paler.

The next characteristic of representations is fragmentation

. The representations are full of gaps, some parts and features are presented vividly, others very vaguely, and still others are completely absent. For example, when we imagine someone's face, we clearly and distinctly reproduce only individual features, those on which, as a rule, we fixed our attention. The remaining details only appear slightly against the background of a vague and indefinite image.

An equally significant characteristic of ideas is their instability.

and
impermanence
. Thus, any evoked image, be it an object or someone’s image, will disappear from the field of your consciousness, no matter how hard you try to hold it. And you will have to make another effort to evoke it again. In addition, representations are very fluid and changeable. First one and then another detail of the reproduced image comes to the foreground. Only people who have a highly developed ability to form ideas of a certain type (for example, musicians have the ability to form auditory ideas, artists have visual ideas) can these ideas be sufficiently stable and constant.

It should be noted that ideas are not just visual images of reality, but are always, to a certain extent, generalized images

. This is their proximity to concepts. Generalization occurs not only in those representations that relate to a whole group of similar objects (the idea of ​​a chair in general, the idea of ​​a cat in general, etc.), but also in the representations of specific objects. We see every object familiar to us more than once, and each time we form some new image of this object, but when we evoke in our consciousness an idea of ​​this object, the image that arises is always of a generalized nature. For example, imagine your dining table or the cup you usually use. You have seen these objects more than once and from different sides, but when you were asked to imagine them, they appeared in your mind not in the plural, but in some generalized image. This generalized image is characterized primarily by the fact that it emphasizes and shows with the greatest clarity the constant features of a given object, and on the other hand, the features characteristic of individual, private memories are absent or presented very faintly.

Our ideas are always the result of a generalization of individual images of perception. The degree of generalization contained in a presentation may vary. Representations characterized by a high degree of generalization are called general representations

.

It is also necessary to emphasize the following very important feature of representations. On the one hand, representations are visual, and in this they are similar to sensory and perceptual images. On the other hand, general ideas contain a significant degree of generalization, and in this respect they are similar to concepts. Thus, representations are a transition from sensory and perceptual images to concepts.

Representation, like any other cognitive process, performs a number of functions in the mental regulation of human behavior. Most researchers identify three main functions: signaling, regulating and tuning.

The essence of the signaling function of ideas is to reflect in each specific case not only the image of an object that previously influenced our senses, but also diverse information about this object, which, under the influence of specific influences, is transformed into a system of signals that control behavior.

I.P. Pavlov believed that ideas are the first signals of reality, on the basis of which a person carries out his conscious activity. He showed that ideas are very often formed according to the mechanism of a conditioned reflex. Thanks to this, any ideas signal specific phenomena of reality. When in the course of your life and activity you come across some object or some phenomenon, you form ideas not only about what it looks like, but also about the properties of this phenomenon or object. It is this knowledge that subsequently acts as a primary orientation signal for a person. For example, when you see an orange, you imagine it as an edible and quite juicy object. Therefore, orange is able to satisfy hunger or thirst.

Regulatory function

representations is closely related to their signaling function and consists in the selection of the necessary information about an object or phenomenon that previously affected our senses. Moreover, this choice is not made abstractly, but taking into account the real conditions of the upcoming activity. Thanks to the regulatory function, exactly those aspects, for example, of motor representations are updated, on the basis of which the task is solved with the greatest success.

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Effects and phenomena

A separate chapter of perception in psychology is the perception of a person by a person. It has a number of effects and phenomena, which are clearly shown in the table.

Levels

In psychology, there are 4 main levels of perception:

• sensory - it is based on the senses, it is considered to be the lowest level of perception, at which all living organisms are located, however, it also depends on the level of consciousness, since a person, say, consciously, can perform certain sensory actions;
• perceptual - the object is classified at the initial stage;
• research - examination of a particular function, aspect of an object or phenomenon;
• activity - interaction with the object under study, as for the purpose of a certain activity.

Classification of species, types and forms

By leading analyzer

differ depending on the analyzers :

• vision;
• touch;
• hearing;
• sense of smell;
• taste;
• kinesthesia.

According to the form of matter that perception reflects

It also has its own characteristics:

• the perception of time is not innate, it develops in the process of gaining life experience and depends on age: in old age it sometimes seems that time flows faster, and in childhood it seems on the contrary;
• perception of movements - here the speed of movement, its shape, scope and direction are assessed;
• perception of space - here the volume and distance of objects plays a certain role.

According to the degree of purposefulness and types of activity of the individual

Perception from this point of view is of 2 types:

• involuntary - it is produced unintentionally, it can arise as a result of some bright flash, a sound that suddenly opens up when the landscape moves;
• deliberate ; a person already carries it out consciously, usually in the process of activity.

By type of activity: technical, humanitarian, musical, etc. are usually classified here.

Conscious and subconscious

Consciousness is distinguished by its power of influence.

Subconscious perception and usually does not reach consciousness. But, accumulating, it can manifest itself and even affect the behavior of an individual.

Externally directed and internally directed

The first is based on impressions of surrounding objects and phenomena. The second is characterized by the perception of one’s own subjective thoughts and feelings.

Factors influencing perception and their effect:

SELECTION OF INFORMATION

We are surrounded by a flow of information, polar opinions, an abundance of facts with varying degrees of truthfulness. Usually we do not pass this entire flow through ourselves, we select only certain grains. The information received is as clear as possible for us. On its basis, conclusions are drawn. The constructed picture of the world is subjective, individual for each person.

For example, one person from your environment acted incorrectly and did not fulfill his promise. Often we don’t even find out the reasons; it is possible that this action was an accidental oversight. Usually, after an unfulfilled promise, a person is immediately labeled as dispensable. This “sentence” will have a significant impact on future relationships, which will now lean in a negative direction. We label a person based on a single incident, completely erasing the possibility of good relationships in the future.

Quite often we hear from others “you always...” Moreover, it is not necessary that the action actually corresponds to your usual behavior. The interlocutor simply created an image based on one fact. This cognitive error is common to many people; it is worth getting rid of it. We build a picture of the world on one fact, and our interlocutor does the same. So, based only on our imaginary rightness, we try every day to find a common language with other people . And, unfortunately, we do not always achieve success.

SENSUAL IMPACT

Emotions are a powerful factor that can significantly change our perceptions. Moreover, the effect goes in the opposite direction. Not only do emotions influence perception, but perception also shapes emotions. We have already looked at this example. If you look at the world negatively, use negative perception as a process , then your emotions will be exclusively negative.

Sometimes we perceive the situation incorrectly, which is where irritation appears. Although initially there was nothing negative in the interlocutor’s words or actions. If parents ask their adult children if they have enough money, this does not mean that they doubt their children’s financial independence or earnings. This only means caring about their well-being and offering help. If your mom offers you money, don't get annoyed right away. This does not mean that she wants to blame you for problems with the family budget.

We ourselves choose the emotions that we apply to different people. Our interactions with others are built on the basis of these emotions. This is why perception is considered a strong and active factor. It can radically change your attitude towards the situation, other people, and the world as a whole.

INTERESTS AND NEEDS

Our personality has a huge impact on the development of perception If there is a factor that worries us too much, then we will pay more attention to it. This situation works for those who are on a diet. If you limit yourself to sweets, then you will be outraged and annoyed by the people who allow themselves these sweets. And if you meet someone who also adheres to a strict diet, you will see a kindred spirit in him. And be sure to give such a person a positive rating.

The same situation arises with our needs. A person who fully satisfies our needs will be more likable. If someone does not meet the needs, then condemnation will immediately arise. Subsequently, we will have a negative attitude towards him, which will ruin the relationship, or even bring it to naught.

PERSONAL EXPERIENCE

One of the most common cognitive errors is judging people according to one parameter. We believe that all people are alike, sharing similar experiences and behaviors. From this misconception, general requirements are built, which for the most part do not correspond to reality. Unfulfilled expectations lead to resentment, resentment leads to misunderstanding and accusations.

For example, you have experience solving a certain problem. Another person with a similar problem still hasn't solved it. You begin to treat him worse, blame him, condemn him. This misunderstanding leads to deterioration of relationships. It is impossible to build normal and effective communication on such errors of perception.

Let's take fat people. Many look at them with contempt, considering them stupid and lazy. Stupid because they don’t see their own shortcomings and don’t try to correct them. Lazy because they can’t go to the gym or stop eating sweets at night. Moreover, these condemners do not always have a model appearance. Even if the judge himself has gained a few kilograms, he will always consider himself better. According to him, these kilograms can be easily lost; they appeared quite recently. In his own eyes, the judge will be much smarter and better than a random overweight passerby. The reasons for completeness are usually not considered in such situations. We evaluate people based on our experience, comparing them with others or with ourselves.

We can take another example. If a young man’s family always treats guests well, especially relatives, if they are always given a luxurious reception, this does not mean that girls in the family should do the same. A young man can evaluate the family of his chosen one “from his own bell tower,” and then wonder why they did not receive them with due honors. But it is likely that another family has completely different traditions, and it is pointless and wrong to be offended by them.

BRIGHT CHARACTER TRAITS

This cognitive error is called the mirroring principle. If we have certain character traits, we will see them in other people. For example, you can always be polite and tactful with strangers, and not raise your voice at them. But this does not mean that your colleague has the same qualities. This factor works not only in the case of positive character traits. We will also mirror our own stubbornness or suspicion onto other people.

AUTHORITY

You yourself may have noticed this feature. Many have seen how the perception of information changes if the data was obtained from a reputable source. Most people trust a trusted source of information unquestioningly . Especially if we are talking about something new. We do not yet have time to form our own opinion, so we use the judgments of authorities. But if you learn more about the situation, your opinion will gradually change. We will begin to form our own judgment based on our own perceptions.

We looked at the factors that influence our perception, as well as the impact of perception on communication, interaction, value judgment, and psychological state.

Modality

There are 4 sensory information perception systems (models - hence the name) that people use:

• the visual system involves the perception of color and shape, that is, what we see;
• the auditory system uses sounds, their volume, timbre, rhythm, frequency;
• the kinesthetic system perceives taste, smell, temperature;
• digital uses logical constructions.

Types of people

There are several types of perception:

• visual : it occurs with the dominance of what is seen;
• auditory - it is mainly based on sounds;
• discrete is based on numbers and symbols;
• There is also a more complex perception, based on other senses.

These types cannot be evenly distributed in our consciousness; for some, some are better developed, for others, others are better developed.

Accordingly, people are divided into individuals with different dominant types of perception :

• the visual person notices something faster, the words predominate in his speech: I saw, I looked, I imagined;
• the auditory person often speaks about what he heard and relies primarily on sound sensations;
• kinesthetic is emotional, constantly talking about sensations;
• Digital is based on logical constructions.

Examples

Of course, there are no people who use only one form of perception, just as there are no purely expressed types; they are often mixed. However, examples of the perception of people with one dominant personality are not difficult to identify.

Visual people value beauty in the surrounding space, do not tolerate clutter, the chaotic arrangement of things, and do not like it when the room is dirty.

The visual person makes many plans, often unrealistic, because they do not always perceive reality realistically. However, people of this type can also be generators of great ideas.

Auditory learners love sounds and, accordingly, first of all, music; they often compose it well themselves.

They have a well-developed auditory memory. They can imitate the speech of another person, sounds made by animals and even machines.

Observations show that auditory learners make good speakers and teachers.

Kinesthetics are emotional, sensitive, and changeable in mood. In interpersonal communication, they subtly sense the state of their interlocutor. When exploring an unfamiliar area and room, great importance is attached to touching and feeling.

Even touching the hand of the interlocutor is an important element of communication for them.

Digital people try to identify some kind of connection and pattern in everything they see and hear. They are prone to lengthy and very careful analysis of perceived phenomena.

Psychologists note that it is people of this type who, in stressful situations, are better than those around them in maintaining self-control and finding a way out of the current situation.

Perception factors

Why do people who have the same channels of perception and information processing mechanisms see the same reality so differently? Differences and features of perception are caused by external and internal factors that affect our ability to understand the world. External ones include:

1. Repeatability : images of frequently encountered objects are formed in the mind more complete.
2. Intensity of influence : a strong effect on receptors or provocation of strong emotions is what accelerates perception.
3. Contrast : objects or phenomena that stand out from the general mass are better remembered and more readily analyzed by our brain.
4. Movement : static and dynamic objects are perceived differently, and to get a complete picture of an object, it is advisable to observe it in all states.

What is subjective perception and what internal factors influence it? Three principles have been derived that explain the selectivity of the brain during cognition of reality:

1. Resonance : consists in the fact that phenomena that are in our sphere of interest are perceived more readily than others.
2. Alertness : something that threatens personal safety instantly comes into focus, in contrast to neutral objects.
3. Defenses : the brain protects its beliefs, therefore it resists the perception of any information that contradicts them.

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