Behaviorist approach to understanding personality in social psychology. Behaviorist approach

The classical behaviorist approach is one of the main directions in psychology, the method of which is the observation and experimental study of the body’s reactions to external stimuli for further mathematical substantiation of the relationship between these variables. The development of behaviorism became a prerequisite for the formation of precise research methods in psychology, the transition from speculative conclusions to mathematically based ones. The article describes: the behaviorist approach to the study of personality, the history of the development of this direction and its significance in modern life of society. The latter is presented using the example of the use of behavioral principles in the development of political science.

Behaviorist approach in psychology

Behaviorism in psychology arose on the basis of the methodology of the philosophy of positivism, which considers the goal of science to be the study of what is directly observable. Hence, the subject of the study of psychology should be human behavior, which really exists, and not consciousness or the subconscious, which cannot be observed.

The term “behaviorism” comes from the English behavior and means “behavior.” Thus, the purpose of studying this direction in psychology is behavior - its prerequisites, formation and the ability to control it. Human actions and reactions are the units of study of behaviorism, and behavior itself is based on the well-known “stimulus-response” formula.

The behaviorist approach to personality has become a body of knowledge that is based on experimental studies of animal behavior. Adherents of this direction in psychology have created their own methodological base, goal, subject, methods of study, as well as methods for correcting behavior. Some of the theses of behaviorism have become the basis for other sciences, the purpose of which is to study the actions of people. But a particularly large contribution has been made in the theory and practice of teaching and raising children.

Behaviorist approach to understanding personality

The word "behaviorism" comes from English - behavior. Behaviorism was first represented by the theoretical views of American psychologists D. B. Watson and B. F. Skinner. D. B. Watson (1878-1958) is considered the founder of behaviorism. In his views, he argued that all human behavior can be described in two terms - stimulus and reaction, stimulus is a change in the external environment, and reaction is the body's response to a stimulus. Consciousness and other subjective concepts are denied by behaviorists.

American psychologist B. Skinner , expanding the classical theory of conditioned reflexes, defines personality as the sum of behavior patterns. He called a pattern of behavior

Different situations produce different response patterns. Each individual response is based solely on previous experiences and genetic history.

B. Skinner proposed a model of operant behavior :

The body spontaneously produces reactions to stimuli. These reactions can be strengthened or weakened by punishing undesired reactions or rewarding desirable ones. A reinforcing stimulus is given after the desired reactions have been obtained, which helps reinforce them and repeat them. Punishment (or a negative reinforcer) reduces the likelihood of certain responses. Positive and negative reinforcers regulate and control behavior.

*Primary reinforcers

- direct physical rewards.

*Secondary reinforcers

- neutral stimuli that are associated with primary reinforcers, so that they themselves begin to act as rewards. Money or the promise of money is one example of a secondary reinforcer.

An autonomous person, freedom, dignity, creativity, from the point of view of B. Skinner, are only fictions; he also denies the spontaneity of behavior and its sources that lie outside life experience.

Fictions are representations or concepts with which we operate in such a way as if they correspond in reality to something that does not actually exist - we attribute, for example, to an object a quality that it actually does not have, we put a person in a position that it doesn't really occupy

Understanding personality from the perspective of humanistic psychology. (G. Allport, A. Maslow, K. Rogers, etc.)

K. Rogers (the founder of the humanistic movement) when considering personality is based on the principle of its self-actualization. According to this principle, the main motive of a person’s behavior is the desire for self-actualization .

It consists in the realization by a person of his abilities in order to preserve life, make himself stronger, and life more satisfying.

Humanistic psychology studied man as a fully developing personality who strives to realize his potential and achieve self-actualization and personal growth. Every normal person has a tendency towards self-expression and self-realization.

Self-actualization occurs through struggle and overcoming obstacles in personal and social life. Self-actualization of the individual also occurs in interpersonal communication, where the processes of assessment, understanding and empathy can lead to closer psychological interaction. At the same time, communication is more consistent when both partners have a correspondence of experience, awareness and message.

Congruence means the exact “match of experience, awareness and message.” The more partner A perceives communication from partner B as a correspondence of experience, awareness of the message, the more their subsequent interaction will correspond to psychological consistency and mutual satisfaction. K. Rogers formulates the law of congruence . Moreover, he notes that ignoring this law leads to a deterioration in the psychological consistency in the actions of both partners.

Another cardinal idea of A. Maslow was the concept of a hierarchy of fundamental needs that develop from lower to higher. This:

*physiological needs (food, water, sleep, etc.)

*need for security,

*need for love and belonging,

*need for respect

*need for self-actualization.

According to Maslow's teachings, the basic human need is the need for self-actualization - the realization of a person's potential, his abilities and talent.

Representatives of behaviorism in psychology

The behaviorist approach has a long history of developing and improving its scientific methods of research and therapy. Its representatives began by studying the elementary principles of animal behavior and came to a system of practical application of this knowledge on humans.

The founder of classical behaviorism, D. Watson, was an adherent of the opinion that only what can be observed is real. He attached importance to the study of 4 acts of human behavior:

visible reactions;
hidden reactions (thinking);
hereditary, natural reactions (for example, yawning);
hidden natural reactions (internal processes of the body).

He was convinced that the strength of the reaction depends on the strength of the stimulus, and he proposed the formula S = R.

Watson's follower E. Thorndike developed the theory further and formulated the following basic laws of human behavior:

exercises - the relationship between conditions and reactions to them depending on the number of reproductions;
readiness - the conduction of nerve impulses depends on the individual’s internal readiness for this;
associative shift - if an individual reacts to one of many stimuli, then the remaining ones will subsequently cause a similar reaction;
effect - if the action brings with it pleasure, then this behavior will occur more often.

Experimental confirmation of the theoretical foundations of this theory belongs to the Russian scientist I. Pavlov. It was he who experimentally proved that conditioned reflexes can be formed in animals if certain stimuli are used. Many people know his experiment with the formation in a dog of a conditioned reaction to light in the form of salivation without reinforcement in the form of food.

In the 1960s, the development of behaviorism expanded. If previously it was considered as a set of individual reactions to stimuli, then from now on the introduction of other variables into this scheme begins. Thus, E. Tolman, the author of cognitive behaviorism, called this intermediate mechanism a cognitive representation. In his experiments with mice, he showed that animals find a way out of the maze on the way to food in different ways, following a previously unfamiliar route. Thus, he demonstrated that the goal for the animal is more important than the mechanisms for achieving it.

Behavioral approach in psychological counseling

The behavioral direction in psychological counseling is to give the client control over his actions, to cause specific changes in his behavior (E.C. Tolman, K.L. Hull, D. Watson and B. Skinner). The emphasis is placed on the fact that the environment affects a person’s personality. The psychologist, together with the client, tries to intervene in the client’s life conditions in order to change them. This is built on the following main components:

1. Client activity is encouraged.

2. The client’s problem is determined through the operationalization of behavior (translation of unclear words into specific, observable actions).

3. Understanding the context of the problem through functional analysis (cause-and-effect relationships).

4. Establishing socially important goals for the client (specific action plan).

Change procedures are also used:

a) training perseverance (helps overcome helplessness and inadequacy) through questions, role-playing games, listing alternatives for decision making;

b) relaxation training (targeted reduction of anxiety, based on learning deep relaxation, building a hierarchy of fears and linking the object of anxiety with this hierarchy against the background of relaxation exercises);

c) modeling behavior and rewarding desired behavior in combination with record keeping;

d) supporting the client in the desired behavior - preventing relapses, which gives control over one’s own behavior. Relapse prevention strategies are divided into the following categories: anticipating difficult situations, regulating thoughts and feelings, identifying the necessary additional skills, building favorable sequences.

Relapse prevention techniques are important not only for behavioral psychology. The problem of relapse exists in the work of psychologists of all directions; its solution by behavioral psychologists deserves great attention from all practical psychologists.

The behavioral approach has many distinctive features (including aspects that are primarily cognitive-behavioral). Here is a list of the unique and strengths of the behavioral approach.

· Addressing symptoms directly. Because most clients need help with specific problems, counselors who address symptoms directly can often provide clients with immediate help. In addition, the behavioral approach is suitable for counseling clients with attention disorders, conduct disorders, eating disorders, substance abuse, psychosexual disorders, impulsive behavior and phobic disorders (Seligman, 1997).

· Focus on events occurring “here and now.” The client does not have to explore the past to get help in the present. The behavioral approach saves time and money.

· Availability of many methods for use in counseling. From 1969 to 1976, the number of behavioral methods more than doubled, a trend that continues today. Counselors can use behavioral methods in a variety of settings. There are quite a few journals on behaviorally oriented counseling, such as The Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis

· Foundation – learning theory, which is a well-formulated way of explaining the process of learning new behaviors (Krumboltz & Thoresen, 1969, 1976). Learning theory continues to develop and produce practical applications for use in a wide range of areas (Rescorla, 1988).

· Support of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy (AABT)

), which publishes ethical guidelines for its members (Azrin, Stuart, Risely, & Stolz, 1977). AABT promotes the practical application and explanation of behavioral counseling techniques in an effort to protect the public from unscrupulous practitioners.

· Supported by reliable research on the impact of behavioral methods on the counseling process. Beginning consultants can use one of many research plans as a template. A common characteristic of all behavioral approaches is their commitment to objectivity and the use of assessments.

· Objectivity in identifying and resolving problems. In this way, the counseling process is demystified and clients and independent evaluators are given the opportunity to determine the extent of their responsibility (Gilliland et al, 1998).

The behavioral approach also has some limitations.

· Only the external behavior of a person is considered without addressing him as an individual. Critics argue that many behaviorists, such as Skinner, have "dichotomized" the individual from personality and replaced it with a consideration of laws that govern actions under specific conditions. This approach may be too simple to explain complex human interactions (Hergenhahn, 1994).

· Sometimes used mechanically. Goldstein (1973) notes that “the most common mistake made by new behavior therapists is to apply methods too hastily” (p. 221). Even though most behaviorists focus on building rapport with clients and conducting counseling collaboratively, some initially underestimate the importance of the client-counselor relationship, thereby damaging the prestige of the approach.

· Most suitable for controlled conditions that are difficult to replicate in normal counseling situations. This remark conceals the concern that many of the behavioral theories were developed from studies of animal behavior - rats and pigeons. Many counselors wonder whether the behavioral approach will be effective when working with clients in less-than-ideal conditions.

· Application of methods that advance theory (Thoresen & Coates, 1980). A rapid increase in new methods has been initiated by behavioral consultants, but the theory that should underlie these methods has not kept pace.

· Ignoring the client's history and unconscious. Although the behavioral approach can be very helpful for a client who has a distinct behavioral problem, it cannot help those who want to resolve their past problems or engage in clarification of the unconscious.

· Developmental stages are not taken into account (Sprinthall, 1971). Skinner (1974) emphasizes that the child's inner world develops, but he and many other behaviorists believe that developmental stages provide little information to explain outer behavior. Instead, they argue that the process of knowledge acquisition has universal features.

· The client is programmed to “minimum or tolerant levels of behavior, conformity is encouraged, creativity is not developed, and the client's needs for self-actualization, self-actualization, and self-esteem are ignored” (Gilliland et al., 1998).

Principles of behaviorism in psychology

If we summarize the conclusions reached by representatives of classical behaviorism, we can highlight several principles of this approach:

behavior is an individual’s reaction to environmental stimuli with the help of which he adapts (the reaction can be both external and internal);
personality is the experience acquired by a person in the process of life, a set of behavior patterns;
Human behavior is shaped by the social environment, not by internal processes.

These principles are the thesis provisions of the classical approach, which were later developed and challenged by followers and critics.

Behaviorism, behavioral direction, behavioral approach

Behaviorism in a broad sense is a direction in psychology that studies the behavior of humans and animals as objectively observable reactions of the body to environmental stimuli.

Representatives: Edward Thorndike, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, John Brodes Watson, Edward Chase Tolman, Burres Frederick Skinner, C. L. Hull.

Behaviorism (behavioral approach) is a variety, one of the directions of the behavioral approach, see. For all the variety of directions within the behavioral approach, see

Types of behaviorism

In behaviorism, a distinction is made between classical behaviorism and neo-behaviorism. Classical behaviorism examines only externally observable behavior and does not distinguish between the behavior of humans and other animals. Neobehaviorism, in addition to the study of externally observable behavior, recognizes “intermediate variables” - internal factors of the body that serve as an intermediary between the influence of stimuli and the response muscle movements. Cm.

Behavioral direction: mission, vision, methods, therapy, effectiveness

Behaviorism was born as a protest against introspection. The behavioral direction considers a person as an organism, as an object of influence in complete analogy with the natural scientific approach. The main methods are classical and operant conditioning. What is the efficiency? Cm.

Myths about behaviorism

Behaviorism is said to be:

ignores the presence of categories of consciousness, sensory states and mental experiences;
sees in a person only an automaton and describes a person as a robot, a puppet and a machine;
does not attempt to take into account cognitive processes, does not study human intentions or goals;
cannot explain creative achievements in the visual arts, music, literature, or science;
does not devote space to the individual core of personality or his well-being;
is necessarily superficial, unable to address the deeper layers of the soul or individuality;
“dehumanizes” a person, relativizes his values and destroys a person as a person;
is necessarily anti-democratic, since the subjects are manipulated by the researcher, so his results could be used by a dictator rather than by well-meaning government officials;
indifferent to the warmth and diversity of human life, incompatible with creative joy in the visual arts, music and literature, as well as with true love for one's neighbor.

Perhaps this is true about some stage in the history of behaviorism, perhaps this can be said about some researchers. In general, these are myths. Cm.

Types of conditioning

Human development occurs through learning—the assimilation of experience in interaction with the outside world. These include mechanical skills, social development, and emotional development. Based on this experience, human behavior is formed. The behaviorist approach examines several types of learning, the most famous of which are operant and classical conditioning.

Operant involves the gradual assimilation by a person of experience in which any of his actions will entail a certain reaction. Thus, the child learns that throwing toys around can make parents angry.

Classical conditioning tells the individual that one event is followed by the next. For example, upon seeing the mother's breast, the child understands that this act will be followed by the taste of milk. This is the formation of an association, the elements of which are one stimulus followed by another.

Stimulus-response relationship

Theoretically proposed by Watson and practically substantiated by Pavlov, the idea that a stimulus is equal to the reaction to it (S - R) was aimed at ridding psychology of “unscientific” ideas about the existence of a “spiritual, invisible” principle in man. Research conducted on animals extended to human mental life.

But the development of this theory also changed the “stimulus-response” scheme. Thus, Thorndike noted that the expectation of reinforcement strengthens the connection between stimulus and response. Based on this, a person performs an action if he expects a positive result or avoids a negative consequence (positive and negative reinforcement).

E. Tolman also considered this scheme to be simplified and proposed his own: S - I - R, where between the stimulus and the response are the individual physiological characteristics of the individual, his personal experience, and heredity.

Question 1: Behaviorism and modern approaches to the study of behavior.

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Seminar No. 1

Question 1: Behaviorism and modern approaches to the study of behavior.

Human behavior is directed personally or socially significant actions, the source of which is the person himself and the author’s responsibility for which is assigned to him.

Behaviorism in a broad sense is a direction in psychology that studies human behavior and ways to influence human behavior.

Behaviorism in the narrow sense, or classical behaviorism, is the behaviorism of J. Watson and his school, which studies only externally observable behavior and does not distinguish between the behavior of humans and other animals. For classical behaviorism, all mental phenomena are reduced to reactions of the body, mainly motor ones: thinking is identified with speech and motor acts, emotions are identified with changes within the body, consciousness is fundamentally not studied as it does not have behavioral indicators. The main mechanism of behavior is the connection between stimulus and response (S->R).

The main method of classical behaviorism is observation and experimental study of the body's reactions in response to environmental influences in order to identify correlations between these variables that can be described mathematically.

Representatives: Edward Thorndike, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, John Brodes Watson, Edward Chase Tolman, Burres Frederick Skinner.

Modern approaches:

According to the cognitive-behavioral approach, a person’s external behavior is determined not only and not so much by external stimuli, but by his internal variables (impulses, states and mental maps). Moreover, these internal variables themselves are determined by external circumstances and can be changed by them.

According to the active approach , a person’s inner world, thoughts and experiences are not a simple reflection of the external circumstances of life, but are refracted through his system of motives and personal constructs. At the same time, the main emphasis of the active approach is on what a person actually does in life, on his actions and deeds. Supporters of the active approach are convinced that the soul is the soul, and a person is responsible for his behavior.

In the personal-active approach, behavior is considered not only externally observable, but also internal behavior, which is included in thoughts, feelings and emotions. Not every person knows how to control their thoughts, not everyone knows how to control their feelings and emotions, but the personal-active approach insists that this is possible, necessary and worthy for a person. A responsible person is responsible for his behavior - both external and internal.

Question 2 Freud's psychoanalytic theory

The main theses by which Freudianism is recognized:

Man is selfish by nature; all his actions and all his problems are ultimately based on repressed sexual desires (libido). Neurosis is formed as a result of a collision of sexual desires with the inability to satisfy them. The symbolism of dreams and slips has a predominantly sexual meaning. For more details see →

All children go through the Oedipus complex. Boys begin to desire their mother and hate their father as a rival; girls similarly direct their incestuous desires towards their mother, but in addition begin to experience penis envy.

The development of childhood sexuality goes through five phases: oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital.

The psychoanalytic approach according to S. Freud includes five fundamental principles: dynamic, economic, structural, the principle of development, the principle of adaptation.

The psychoanalytic heritage is based on these principles, for which the following provisions are the most significant:

1. Of primary importance are human instinctual impulses, their expression and transformation and, most importantly, their suppression, through which painful feelings or experiences of unpleasant thoughts, desires and the influence of consciousness are avoided

2. The belief that such repression is essentially sexual, that the disorder is caused by abnormal libidinal or psychosexual development

3. The idea that the roots of abnormal psychosexual development lie in the distant past, in childhood conflicts or traumas, especially with regard to the parental Oedipus complex, expressed in the classic desire for the opposite sex parent

4. Confidence in resistance to the identification of the Oedipus complex and its rapid restoration

5. The idea that, essentially, we are dealing with a struggle between biological internal impulses (or instincts - Id) and the Ego, which acts as a defense in relation to external reality - in the general context of moral rules or standards (Super-Ego)

6. Commitment to the concept of mental determinism, or causality, according to which mental phenomena, as well as behavior, undoubtedly do not change by chance, but are associated with events that precede them, and, if not made conscious, are involuntarily the basis for repetition

Question 3 Cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychology is one of the leading areas of modern foreign psychology. K.P. arose in the late 50s and early 60s. XX century as a reaction to the denial of the role of the internal organization of mental processes, characteristic of the dominant behaviorism in the United States. Initially, the main task of cognitive research was to study the transformations of sensory information from the moment a stimulus hits the receptor surfaces until the response is received (D. Broadbent, S. Sternberg). In doing so, the researchers proceeded from the analogy between the processes of information processing in humans and in a computing device. Numerous structural components (blocks) of cognitive and executive processes have been identified, including short-term memory and long-term memory (J. Sperling, R. Atkinson). This line of research, having encountered serious difficulties due to the increase in the number of structural models of private mental processes, led to the understanding of cognitive psychology as a direction whose task is to prove the decisive role of knowledge in the behavior of the subject (U. Neisser). With this broader approach, cognitive psychology includes all areas that criticize behaviorism and psychoanalysis from intellectualistic positions (J. Piaget, J. Bruner, J. Fodor). The central issue becomes the organization of knowledge in the subject’s memory, including the relationship between verbal and figurative components in the processes of memorization and thinking (G. Bauer, A. Paivio, R. Shepard). Cognitive theories of emotions (S. Shechter), individual differences (M. Eysenck) and personality (J. Kelly, M. Mahoney) are also being intensively developed. As an attempt to overcome the crisis of behaviorism, Gestalt psychology and other directions, cognitive psychology did not live up to the hopes placed on it, since its representatives failed to unite disparate lines of research on a single conceptual basis.

Question 4 Gestalt psychology

Gestalt psychology (German gestalt - image, form) is a direction in Western psychology that arose in Germany in the first third of the twentieth century. and put forward a program for studying the psyche from the point of view of holistic structures (gestalts), primary in relation to their components.

Representatives: Wolfgang Keller, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Kurt Lewin

Representatives of Gestalt psychology suggested that all various manifestations of the psyche obey the laws of Gestalt. Parts tend to form a symmetrical whole, parts are grouped in the direction of maximum simplicity, proximity, balance. The tendency of every mental phenomenon is to assume a definite, complete form.

The psyche of humans and animals was understood by Gestalt psychologists as an integral “phenomenal field” that has certain properties and structure. The main components of the phenomenal field are figures and ground. In other words, part of what we perceive appears clearly and meaningfully, while the rest is only vaguely present in our consciousness. The figure and background can change places. A number of representatives of Gestalt psychology believed that the phenomenal field is isomorphic (similar) to the processes occurring inside the brain substrate.

The most important law obtained by Gestalt psychologists is the law of constancy of perception, which captures the fact that the entire image does not change when its sensory elements change (you see the world as stable, despite the fact that your position in space, illumination, etc. are constantly changing) the principle of a holistic analysis of the psyche made it possible to scientifically understand the most complex problems of mental life, which were previously considered inaccessible to experimental research.

Question 5: domestic areas of psychology

General psychology studies the psyche of a normal adult, his perception and thinking, memory and attention, will, character and personality as a whole. General psychology also studies where and how this psyche came from and how it develops.

The theoretical part of training in general psychology includes an in-depth study of specific thematic sections, modern trends in domestic and foreign psychological research, the history of psychology, methodological foundations and problems of psychology. The practical part of the training includes mastering modern methods of research work, teaching and practical activities.

General psychology is primarily theoretical psychology↑, and practical psychology is built on its basis: applied psychology, psychotherapy, psychology of normal life and psychology of personality development.

Social psychology is a branch of psychology devoted to human behavior in a group, how a person perceives others, communicates and influences others.

Gordon Allport defined social psychology as the attempt to understand and explain how an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the real, imagined, or perceived presence of other people.

Child psychology is a branch of developmental psychology that studies the patterns of child mental development.

The study of child behavior has two goals:

understand the child himself, how he reacts to various situations, feels, thinks and perceives;

understand how a child grows up, learn to predict the characteristics of his development and find out how childhood events and impressions influence subsequent development.

Developmental psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the development of the human psyche and its characteristics at various age levels. Includes child psychology, psychology of individual development of an adult and gerontopsychology (the study of the characteristics of the psyche and behavior of elderly and elderly people).

Labor psychology - in a broad sense, is a complex of scientific disciplines about work as a cultural and social activity of a person, acting as its subject, its key component, a “system-forming factor”.

In a narrow sense, labor psychology is a complex of scientific disciplines about labor as a process of functioning and development of a person as a subject of labor, as an individual. This is a set of disciplines about:

· theoretical-methodological, psychophysiological and psychological foundations of work,

psychological characteristics of a specific professional activity,

· professionally important qualities of an individual as a subject of labor,

· professional crises and destructions, deformations, diseases.

Workshop 2

Question 1 Observation

Observation (in psychology) is a descriptive psychological research method that involves the purposeful and organized perception and recording of the behavior of the object being studied. Observation is a purposeful, organized and recorded perception of the object being studied in a certain way. During observation, phenomena are studied directly under the conditions in which they occur in real life.

Observation, as a research method in psychology, can be very different. It happens:

· Explicit and hidden,

Direct and indirect

· Included (which can be open and closed) and not included,

Direct and indirect

· Continuous and selective (according to certain parameters).

· Continuous observation is when all the features and manifestations of a person’s mental activity are recorded during a certain period. In contrast, with selective observation, attention is paid only to those facts in human behavior that are directly or indirectly related to the issue being studied.

· Field (in everyday life) and laboratory.

According to systematicity, they are distinguished:

· Non-systematic observation, in which it is necessary to create a generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or group of individuals under certain conditions and does not aim to record causal dependencies and give strict descriptions of phenomena.

· Systematic observation, carried out according to a specific plan and in which the researcher records behavioral characteristics and classifies environmental conditions.

Question 2: testing

Testing is a method of psychological diagnostics that uses “standardized” questions, statements, pictures, diagrams, film fragments, tasks (tests) that have a certain scale of values. Testing makes it possible, with a certain probability, to assess the level of development of the test subjects’ personal qualities required for a particular activity.

The use of tests in foreign schools has a long history. A recognized authority in the field of pedagogical testing, E. Thorndike (1874 - 1949), identifies three stages in the introduction of testing into the practice of American schools:

^ Search period (1900 - 1915). The development of intelligence and ability tests began after 1905 in connection with the publication of a set of tests for selecting children for special schools, which were compiled by A. Binet and D. Simon. At this stage, awareness and initial implementation of tests of memory, attention, perception and others took place. Intelligence tests are being developed and tested to determine IQ.

^ Years of “noise” (1916 - 1930) in the development of school testing, which led to a final understanding of its role and place, possibilities and limitations. Tests by O. Stone for arithmetic, B. Zekingham for checking spelling, and E. Thorndike for diagnosing most school subjects were developed and implemented. The American psychologist E. Thorndike is considered to be the founder of school achievement tests. These tests are often called achievement tests. They have proven to be more valid than traditional methods of measuring school achievement, such as tests, oral and written examinations. Achievement tests are most widely used in the United States. T. Kelly developed a way to measure the interests and inclinations of students (when studying algebra), and C. Spearman proposed a general framework for using correlation analysis to standardize tests.

^ The Modern Stage (1931). In schools in foreign countries, the introduction and improvement of tests proceeded at a rapid pace. Diagnostic tests of school performance have become widespread, using the form of alternatively selecting the correct answer from several plausible ones, writing a very short answer (filling in the blanks), adding letters, numbers, words, parts of formulas, etc.

A number of special requirements are imposed on tests as methods of accurate psychodiagnostics. This:

1. Sociocultural adaptability of the test - compliance of test tasks and assessments with the cultural characteristics that have developed in the society where this test is used, having been borrowed from another country.

2. Simplicity of formulation and unambiguousness of test tasks - in verbal and other test tasks there should not be such moments that can be perceived and understood differently by people.

3. Limited time for completing test tasks - the total time for completing tasks of a psychodiagnostic test should not exceed 1.5-2 hours, since beyond this time it is difficult for a person to maintain his performance at a sufficiently high level.

4. The presence of test norms for a given test - representative average indicators for a given test - that is, indicators representing a large population of people with whom the indicators of a given individual can be compared, assessing the level of his psychological development.

The test norm is the average level of development of a large population of people similar to the given subject in a number of socio-demographic characteristics.

Question 3 Surveys and their types

The survey method is a psychological verbal-communicative method that involves interaction between a psychologist and a subject by obtaining answers from the subject to questions asked. In other words, a survey is a communication between a psychologist and a respondent, in which the main tool is a pre-formulated question.

Types of surveys

· Oral and written survey

An oral survey allows you to penetrate deeper into a person’s psychology and his inner world than a written survey, but it requires special preparation, training and, as a rule, a lot of time to conduct the research.

· Questionnaire

Sometimes used for mass filling out, questionnaires are a kind of “correspondence” conversation (or written survey). The resulting materials, so to speak, lose in the depth and reliability of individual answers, but gain in mass distribution and save time.

· Personality tests

· An interview is classified as both a survey method and a conversation method.

Seminar assignment 3.

UNCONSCIOUS

The scientific understanding of the problem of the unconscious is divided into two main directions: the theory of psychoanalysis (founded by S. Freud) and the theory of the unconscious psychological attitude.

Modern ideas about the phenomenology of the unconscious provide that only a small part of all signals simultaneously arriving from the external and internal environment of the body is reflected in the zone of clear awareness. These signals are used by a person to consciously control his behavior. Other signals are also used by the body to regulate certain processes, but at a subconscious level. When circumstances arise that make it difficult to choose a strategy for a person’s behavior, requiring a new method of solution, they fall into the zone of clear consciousness, but as soon as the decision is made, the strategy is found, control of behavior is transferred to the sphere of the unconscious. At the same time, consciousness is freed to solve new problems.

Behavioral acts at the unconscious level are regulated by unconscious biological mechanisms. They are aimed at satisfying biogenic and sociogenic needs, at preserving the organism and species.

THE UNCONSCIOUS is the sphere of mental reflection in which the image of reality and the subject’s attitude to this reality is not the subject of special reflection; it is a set of involuntary mental processes, a system of innate unconditional reflex reactions.

The area of the unconscious includes mental phenomena that occur during sleep (dreams); responses that are caused by imperceptible, but actually affecting stimuli; movements that were conscious in the past, but due to repetition have become automated and therefore no longer conscious; some motivations for activity in which there is no consciousness of purpose, etc.

CONSCIOUS

CONSCIOUSNESS is the highest level of human reflection of reality, as a result of which knowledge and transformation of the surrounding world is achieved, if the psyche is considered from a materialistic position, and the actual human form of the mental principle of being, if the psyche is interpreted from an idealistic position.

Consciousness is closely related to the volitional control on the part of a person of his own mental states and behavior. Consciousness differs from the unconscious in that a person voluntarily, i.e. with the help of volitional effort, he consciously focuses his attention on a mental image, an idea, a memory, a certain train of thought, and is distracted from what is unimportant at the moment.

Consciousness controls the most complex forms of behavior that require constant attention and conscious control from a person, and is activated in cases where:

· unexpected, intellectually complex problems arise that have no obvious solution;

· it is necessary to overcome physical or psychological resistance to the movement of thought or bodily organ;

· it is necessary to recognize the conflict situation and find a way out of it;

· a person finds himself in a situation that poses a potential threat to him if immediate action is not taken.

Situations of this kind arise in front of people almost continuously, therefore consciousness, as the highest level of mental regulation of behavior, constantly functions.

Seminar 4

Conditioned reflexes

· these are reactions acquired by the body in the process of individual development based on “life experience”

· are individual: some representatives of the same species may have them, while others may not

· are unstable and, depending on certain conditions, they can develop, gain a foothold or disappear; this is their property and is reflected in their very name

can be formed in response to a wide variety of stimuli applied to various receptive fields

· close at the level of the cortex. After removing the cerebral cortex, the developed conditioned reflexes disappear and only unconditioned ones remain.

· carried out through functional temporary connections

Unconditioned reflexes

These are innate, hereditary reactions of the body

· are specific, i.e. characteristic of all representatives of a given species

· relatively constant, as a rule, persist throughout life

· carried out in response to adequate stimulation applied to one specific receptive field

closes at the level of the spinal cord and brainstem

· carried out through a phylogenetically fixed, anatomically expressed reflex arc.

Seminar assignment 8.

Theories of motivation.

A. Maslow's theory of motivation.

OH. Maslow (1908–1970), an American psychologist, one of the founders of humanistic psychology, created a hierarchical model of motivation based on the postulate of its innateness and universality, in which he identified 5 main “levels” of needs:

— physiological needs;

- need for security;

- the need for love, affection and belonging to a particular social group;

- need for respect and recognition;

- the need for self-actualization, which represents the highest level of the hierarchy of motives.

This introduces the assumption that the needs of a higher level cannot be satisfied unless the needs of lower levels are first satisfied. Because of this, no more than one percent of all people can reach the highest level.

Seminar assignment 9.

Seminar No. 1

Question 1: Behaviorism and modern approaches to the study of behavior.

Human behavior is directed personally or socially significant actions, the source of which is the person himself and the author’s responsibility for which is assigned to him.

Behaviorism in a broad sense is a direction in psychology that studies human behavior and ways to influence human behavior.

Representatives: Edward Thorndike, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, John Brodes Watson, Edward Chase Tolman, Burres Frederick Skinner.

Modern approaches:

1Next ⇒

Learning from a Behaviorist Perspective

Behaviorism became the basis for the development of the behavioral approach in psychology. Although these directions are often identified, there is still a significant difference between them. The behaviorist approach considers personality as the result of learning, as a set of externally presented reactions, on the basis of which behavior is formed. Thus, in behaviorism, only those actions that manifest themselves externally have meaning. The behavioral approach is broader. It includes the principles of classical behaviorism, cognitive and personal approaches, i.e. the internal actions of the body (thoughts, feelings, roles) that are created by the individual and for which he is responsible are also subject to study.

The behaviorist approach has received many modifications, among which the most common is the social learning theory of A. Bandura and D. Rotter. Scientists have expanded our understanding of human behavior. They believed that the actions of an individual are determined not only by external factors, but also by internal predisposition.

A. Bandura noted that readiness, faith, expectations - as internal determinants - interact with reward and punishment, external factors equally. He was also confident that a person is capable of independently changing his behavior under the influence of the attitude of the surrounding world towards him. But the main thing is that a person can form a new plan of action by simply observing the behavior of other people, even without their direct influence. According to the researcher, a person has a unique ability to self-regulate his behavior.

J. Rotter, developing this theory, proposed a system for predicting human behavior. According to the scientist, a person will act based on 4 conditions: behavioral potential (the degree of probability of behavior in response to some stimulus), expectation (the subject’s assessment of the likelihood of reinforcement in response to his behavior), reinforcement value (assessment of the personal significance of the reaction to actions) and psychological situation (external environment in which the action may occur). Thus, the potential of behavior depends on the combination of these three factors.

Hence, social learning is the assimilation of skills and patterns of behavior in the social world, which is determined both by external factors and by the internal predisposition of the individual.

Approaches to teaching foreign languages (p. 1)

1. Language teaching approaches - Approaches to teaching foreign languages

Behaviorism/Behaviourist approach

Behaviorism -

an approach to learning based on behavioral psychology. The founder of this approach is considered to be B. Skinner, who developed a system of principles of human behavior under strictly defined conditions. He believed that the learning process is primarily influenced by the world around a person, and not by a genetic factor.

Skinner developed Pavlov's theory of conditioned reflexes in relation to learning and introduced the concept of “operations” (operants), which, in contrast to the operations that function in speech activity, mean various types of human behavior. Skinner also pointed out the need for “reinforcement” of the reaction.

Thus, behaviorism describes learning as operant conditioning, that is, a process in which an individual responds to a stimulus with a specific behavior. Subsequent reinforcement of this behavior with the help of various rewards or punishments will either contribute to its reproduction and repetition, or will lead to its abandonment. It was assumed that with the help of this approach to teaching it was possible to get the student to independently perform a certain set of actions that were assigned a positive reaction from the teacher, or to refuse to perform actions that were accompanied by his negative reaction.

Skinner proposed four basic principles aimed at improving the level of education:

· teachers must clearly explain what they will teach;

· the task should be step-by-step in nature, that is, the learning process should consist of a series of tasks graded by difficulty;

· it is necessary, with the help of individual training programs, to provide students with the opportunity to work in an individual mode;

· training must be “programmed” in nature, include all of the above components and ensure one hundred percent success through repetition and reinforcement with the help of various incentives (Williams and Burden 1997, pp. 9-10).

The behaviorist approach to teaching had many positive features, as it provided students and teachers with a detailed program for studying and teaching a particular subject, in which the material was graded according to degree of difficulty and studied in small portions. The learning process was built taking into account the individual characteristics of the students, and provided feedback that the student received during the lesson either directly from the teacher or in the form of a control option provided by the training program.

Despite all the positive characteristics, behaviorism has been subject to serious criticism in both foreign and domestic learning theories. The negative feature of this approach, of course, was that it did not take into account the principle of consciousness; learning was based on imitation and mechanical execution of actions. The learning process was identified with actions, the basis of which were reflexes, and the purposeful and motivated nature of human activity was not taken into account.

In general, the behaviorist approach to teaching had a significant impact on the teaching of foreign languages and contributed to the emergence of a number of approaches and methods in different countries: audiolingual in the USA, audiovisual in France, and was also used by English teachers when developing a situational teaching method.

Cognitivism / Cognitive approach

1. Cognitive approach

to learning is based on cognitive psychology, based on the principle of consciousness in teaching and on the theory of socioconstructivism
( social constructivist approach ),
according to which the student is an active participant in the learning process, and not the object of the teacher’s teaching activities. In psychology, various individual psychological characteristics of a person are known, which determine the type of his personality and influence the learning process.

The following personality types are distinguished:

· Introverted and extroverted. The first type is characterized by calm, balanced behavior, focus on one’s own personality, and introspection; extroverts love communication, strive for leadership, and vigorously express their emotions;

· Deductive and inductive. They are distinguished depending on what method of inference is characteristic of them: from the general to the particular - deductive or from the particular to the general - inductive;

· Inert and labile. The inert type corresponds to a rational-logical way of thinking; it is characterized by the use of a conscious approach, voluntary attention, and analysis; the labile type correlates with an intuitive-sensual way of thinking and is characterized by unawareness, the use of involuntary attention, and a holistic perception of the material;

· A personality type characterized by a tendency to overgeneralize, overgeneralize, or undergeneralize. The first occurs when a rule is applied to phenomena that are not covered by this rule (for example: / can to...); the second leads to an inability to generalize facts and draw conclusions.

Depending on individual psychological characteristics and personality traits, students develop a certain way of performing activities in the process of cognition, a way of understanding the world, or a cognitive style. Researchers identify a different number of cognitive styles that correlate with the psychological characteristics of a person’s personality type and qualities. In relation to learning a foreign language, the following can be considered the main cognitive styles:

· field independence -
the ability
of an individual to identify the desired object among a number of distracting factors
; field dependence - a person
’s dependence on the entire spectrum of perceived facts, the inability to select the desired object ;

· the dominant role of one of the cerebral hemispheres ( left -
and right - brain functioning ):
if the left hemisphere dominates, then the person has an analytical mind, gravitates towards a deductive way of presenting thoughts; with the leading role of the right hemisphere, there is an inductive way of thinking, in which a person operates with blocks of information, remembers them entirely, and prefers to use clarity;

· tolerance ( ambiguity
tolerance )
- the ability of an individual to be tolerant, to perceive material that contradicts his views, and also to master the material in various ways, including those that are not typical for his style of cognition;

reflectivity _ _ _

and impulsiveness
( impulsivity ):
reflectivity is characteristic of an inert type of nervous system, when a student first thinks and weighs his speech behavior, and then makes a decision and makes adjustments; impulsiveness correlates with a labile type of nervous system and involves quick, often thoughtless responses, which are often replete with errors;

· visual and auditory styles ( visual
style , auditory style ):
the first style is typical for students who prefer reading and use tables, diagrams and drawings for better memorization; Students in the second group prefer to memorize material by ear or audio (Brown 1994a, pp. 104-113).

Some authors also classify various qualities of students as cognitive styles: the presence of a desire to take risks (risk-taking), which is necessary for learning a foreign language and overcoming a psychological barrier; the ability for introspection and self-esteem (self-esteem), with a tendency to high or low self-esteem; a state of anxiety, concern, excitement (anxiety) during the learning process, fear of making a mistake; empathy, the ability to empathize, which manifests itself in the process of performing various tasks, when students must take into account the abilities and capabilities of the interlocutor, be tolerant of his mistakes, and sympathize if something does not work out.

As a rule, a person uses a certain set of cognitive styles, but those who can consciously select and effectively use different cognitive styles are more successful. The cognitive styles characteristic of a particular student determine his learning style and influence his choice of learning strategies.

In accordance with the cognitive approach, when planning, organizing and conducting the educational process, the teacher must take into account the different cognitive styles characteristic of students in this group, as well as the learning strategies that students use.

2. Cognitive approach -

a theory of foreign language learning developed from cognitive psychology. Appeared in opposition to behaviorism; its authors are considered to be J. Bruner and W. Rivers (Rivers 1989). In relation to teaching a foreign language, cognitivism means that the study of a particular linguistic phenomenon should be based on the mental processes and actions that underlie the understanding and use of this phenomenon in speech. This approach emphasizes the need to take into account the characteristics of students’ mastery of a particular linguistic phenomenon, and also draws attention to the ability of students to organize their learning activities consciously.

The cognitive theory of teaching foreign languages is based on the following principles:

· The development of thinking is an integral part of the process of language acquisition. Language learning should not be based only on the perception and mechanical learning of language units (structures, phrases, speech patterns) or rules. Students should be involved in the active process of learning the essence of the phenomena being studied, when conditions are created for the implementation of personal guidelines.

· Students must be active participants in the learning process, whose individual interests and characteristics must be taken into account.

· The learning process is not only personal, but also socially determined, when students, as in the real world, communicate with each other and with the teacher. In this regard, both students and teachers should be involved in the process of mutual knowledge and understanding of each other and cooperation during the period of teaching and learning.

The latter provision allowed scientists to draw a conclusion about the interactive nature of the teaching and learning process and talk about a socio-interactive approach within the framework of the cognitive approach.

The cognitive approach to learning is implemented in such methods as the grammar-translation approach, the consciously-oriented approach, as well as when teaching using a database.

With the advent of the communicative approach to learning in foreign methods, there has been a tendency to underestimate the role of cognitive processes in learning a foreign language; they began to be associated only with learning rules and systematic language acquisition, which means understanding the cognitive approach in a narrow sense.

In Russian psychology and methodology, which have historically gravitated towards the study of cognitive processes of the individual, cognition is usually understood in a broad sense and speaks of its various levels:

· rule level - performing speech actions in accordance with the rule;

· level of meaning - awareness and understanding of the meaning of the language units used;

· level of performance of speech activity - how the speaker constructs a statement, where he begins, how he ends, what arguments he gives;

· social level - awareness of the content of what is being said, what function the statement has (advice, request, objection, etc.);

· cultural level - awareness of how the reported information and its verbal presentation correspond to the cultural norms of native speakers;

· cognitive style of students' work - the student's awareness of how he/she learns, what techniques he/she uses, assessment of their effectiveness, as well as self-assessment of the level of language proficiency.

The named levels of cognition correlate with the components of communicative competence and indicate the influence of cognitive processes on its formation. This allows us to conclude that there is a cognitive component in communicative competence. This approach is reflected in the interpretation of the communicative method of teaching by domestic methodologists, who use the terms “communicative-cognitive method” or “approach.”

Humanistic approach

Humanistic approach

based on the humanistic direction in psychology; relies on the thoughts, feelings and emotions of students in the process of learning, education and development, as well as on cognitive processes that provide knowledge of the world and self-knowledge and contribute to learning. This approach emphasizes the need to foster a sense of responsibility and rejects any restriction on students' freedom of thought and creativity (Stevick 1991, pp. 28-29).

The basic principles of the humanistic approach are the following:

· The educational process should develop in students universal human values, a humane attitude and compassion for others, empathy with them.

· Training should be personally oriented, promote the development and realization of a person’s sense of self-awareness, knowledge of oneself and others, which involves differentiation of learning and taking into account the individual needs of students in the context of using collective forms of work.

· The teacher must contribute to the development and actualization of students’ personalities: help, guide and encourage their independence in resolving issues related to the content of the course and the choice of materials and teaching methods and self-study, that is, build the educational process based on the active participation of students.

· Teachers should treat students with a sense of respect, compassion, empathy and empathy .

appreciate their personality, try to understand their vision of the world, and not impose on them your opinion and ways of solving problems.

It should be noted that some provisions of this approach contradict the generally accepted view on the development of curricula and plans, since from the point of view of the humanistic approach, any planning of educational content and methods of mastering it is not education and infringes on the interests of students. Many supporters of this approach interpret it as uncontrolled, implying complete freedom and dictate of students in choosing the content, means and teaching methods.

The humanistic approach means not only the humane and “free” nature of learning, but also the need to instill in students a sense of responsibility, the ability to self-esteem and self-control, and presupposes the formation of the ability to organize their work and the learning process as a whole.

The humanistic approach to learning is reflected in the methodology of teaching foreign languages and is implemented in the “silent” teaching method (see The silent way, p. 52), the “community” method (see Community language learning, p. 49) and a number of others methods. However, much more important than the new methods is the humanistic orientation itself, which allows the teacher to build the learning process taking into account the personal characteristics of the student and use elements of this approach within other methods (Brumfit 1982; Arnold 1998; Gadd 1998).

Whole language approach / Gestalt style / Global learning / Holistic approach / Top-down approach

Global approach, Gestalt style, top-down language learning - with

Using these terms, an approach to learning is described from different angles, based on the position of Gestalt psychology, according to which human behavior consists of certain integral units - “Gestalts”.

Accordingly, each behavioral situation must be examined as a whole, without breaking it down into components. Language teaching should be structured in the same way. It should not be divided into separate types of speech activity and isolate linguistic units. Language learning should be based on the material of undivided blocks, which are worked by students in their entirety, “from top to bottom,” from the general perception of the material to the subsequent selection and awareness of its parts. For example, students first read the text in its entirety and then move on to analyze its components. Preference is given to group and pair work and communication.

the
to be more progressive compared to the “traditional” one, which is defined by such
terms
as atomistic approach ,
analytical style and
bottom - up approach .
The global approach involves the use of process-oriented curricula (see Process-oriented approach, p. 34). They are called analytical (see Analytic approach, p. 80), since work on a program of this type is based on an independent analysis of the whole and the isolation of its components.

Programs developed in accordance with the “traditional” approach are focused on the learning product and are called synthetic. In the process of working on such programs, students must use individual elements through synthesis to create a holistic picture of the use of a particular unit in speech.

Product-oriented approach

Product-oriented approach to training

the result of teaching and learning activities, considers the studied linguistic and speech phenomena as static units, frozen samples, the generation or understanding of which should be strived for in the learning process.

It is assumed that a certain period of training (course, lesson, fragment of a lesson, assignment) ends for the student with the creation of some kind of speech product - a separate statement, dialogue, letter, etc., which is the goal of learning, towards which the teacher’s activities are aimed. .

When applied to teaching reading, this approach considers the text as an object from which information is extracted, and the reading process itself is assessed by its result - the extraction of information. Writing instruction is also outcome-oriented—a written piece of work (letter, essay, essay, etc.) that the student must submit to the teacher for review. Based on this approach to teaching, curricula of a “synthetic” type are developed, and tasks that reflect the result of the teacher’s teaching activities are put forward as learning objectives.

Process-oriented approach

An approach to learning focused on the process of developing knowledge, skills and abilities.

This approach has received serious development in teaching writing. Researchers note the pronounced “procedural” nature of writing, since an essay or story cannot be written immediately in the final version. The product of written language appears through the process of planning, writing theses, drafting, reformulating phrases and changing parts of the text, etc. It is assumed that teaching writing should imitate all stages of the actual process of generating a written statement. This approach to learning is implemented in analytical-type training programs, and learning objectives reflect the learning process.

Deductive approach vs.

Inductive approach

Deductive approach

learning relies on deduction - a type of inference from the general to the specific.
In relation to teaching foreign languages, the deductive approach involves explaining the rule and training it in practice, that is, the path from the general to the specific, from form to its implementation. The inductive approach,
on the contrary, presupposes a path from the particular to the general, from the use of a lexical or grammatical phenomenon to an understanding of its form.

The interpretation of the terms “inductive” and “deductive” in domestic and foreign methods differs significantly. According to foreign methodologists, the deductive approach underlies the grammar-translation method, when the student first learns a rule and then performs exercises in accordance with it. The inductive approach in its pure form completely excludes the use of rules and is characteristic of mastering the native language, when the child intuitively, unconsciously masters a phenomenon and uses it in speech. An example of an inductive approach to teaching foreign languages can be the audiolingual method, when students work according to a model, use a phenomenon in speech through imitation, mechanical repetition, and perform actions according to a model, but do not verbally formulate the rule.

“Modified” deductive and inductive approaches are distinguished (Gollin 1998), when students derive a rule from examples provided by the teacher and formulate it verbally, and then practice using a linguistic phenomenon (modified deductive approach), or perform various tasks on using the phenomenon, and then formulate rule (modified inductive approach).

In foreign methodology, the term “inductive approach” is often used as a synonym for the term “natural approach”, and “deductive” is correlated with the terms “formal, cognitive-based”. At the same time, inductivity is interpreted as a modern direction in teaching, and deductivity as a traditional, outdated one.

The domestic methodology does not give preference to one or another approach. Moreover, according to domestic and a number of foreign methodologists, inductiveness and deductiveness are not approaches to learning, but indicate possible ways of mastering language material, which are based on cognitive processes: analysis is the essence of deduction, and analogy is the essence of induction (Rivers 1989, p. 95). Both methods of introducing material do not exclude the role of rules in teaching, and it is noted that the rules can be presented in various forms - from verbal formulation to diagrams and tables of a generalizing nature.

Each of these approaches has positive and negative features. With the inductive nature of the presentation of language material, students become familiar with the phenomenon and its use in speech, which promotes communication, but makes it difficult to clearly understand the mechanism of formation and use and interferes with self-control. The deductive method is more time-efficient, helps to overcome the interference of the native language, promotes awareness of the structure and form of linguistic phenomena, but there is always a danger that memorizing the rules will become an end in itself and will not lead to the formation of communicative skills. The teacher needs to decide for himself which method will be most effective in specific conditions, depending on the stage of learning, the level of preparedness of students, the goals and objectives of the lesson.

The inductive approach to learning has become widespread in modern foreign methods, which has led to a clarification and revision of the meaning of this term by some methodologists and to the emergence of a new term consciousness - raising
approach
- “consciously-oriented approach”. This approach is the basis of database- and computer-assisted learning.

Structural approach/Grammatical approach

Structural approach

to teaching a foreign language is based on the provisions of structural linguistics and behaviorist trends in psychology.
Learning in accordance with this approach involves mastering a number of grammatical structure patterns (structures), which are arranged in a certain sequence depending on the difficulty of their acquisition. An example is the following structures: I have a family . Could you open the door .
Structures are introduced sequentially, and their number covers all the grammatical material being studied. Structures are trained by students under the guidance of a teacher or individually in language exercises for substitution, imitation, filling in the blanks, etc.

The structural approach in the domestic methodology is based on the concept of structure adopted by representatives of the Prague linguistic school. In this regard, the understanding of the learning process based on the structural approach in the domestic methodology differs from the point of view of Western methodologists: the structure and options for its use in speech (its modification) are usually considered as a structural group.

A structural group is “a set of functional transformations of the original structure, including, in addition to affirmative and negative structures, questions of all types and answers to them. <…> A structural group is not a model of dialogue, but a set of structures that are subject to joint development in speech” (Starkov 1978, pp. 45-46), for example: The
book is on the desk . The book isn't on the chair. Is the book on the desk? - Yes, it is. (No, it isn't.) Is the book on the desk or on the chair? — The book is on the desk. Where is the book ? — It 's on the desk .
_ Structure training does not end with performing language exercises, but involves conditional speech and genuine speech exercises, the correct selection and organization of which ensure mastery of language material for the purpose of its communicative use.

The structured approach to learning has positive and negative aspects. Thanks to this approach, a unit of learning was identified and grammatical models were clarified, and a sequence for the primary consolidation of new grammatical structures in the form of substitution operations according to structural, or grammatical, models was developed. The structural approach provided the teacher with a set of models that were isolated from traditional topics of normative grammar, and determined the sequence of training work with them.

At the same time, adherents of the structural approach underestimate the role of communication, misunderstand the automation of speech skills, and often reduce it to memorizing cliche models, which is not enough to use structure in speech. Teaching in accordance with the principles of the structural approach makes it difficult to consciously choose means of expression and does not contribute to the free construction of speech and speech creation.

Lexical approach

Lexical approach

is based on the priority position of vocabulary in teaching, since it reflects the content side of the language.

This approach means mastering vocabulary in all its diversity and compatibility, with the main attention paid to the formation of speech skills in word use. The lack of development of these skills causes errors at the usage level, for example:

In England people may drink coffee and drive cars, but in English they typically do not, as the following examples reveal:

1. — Would you like a cup of coffee?

· No, thanks. I've already had

(not
drunk)
one.

2. - How did you come this morning?

· I drove

(or I
brought the car
; not /
drove the car)
(Lewis 1996a, p. 25).

The main provisions of the lexical approach are the following.

· Language consists of “grammaticalized vocabulary”, so the main attention should be paid to the formation of lexical skills.

· The dichotomy “lexis - grammar” has become obsolete; vocabulary is found in the speech of native speakers in the form of undivided blocks, lexical unities ( chunks )

, which students must master in the learning process.

· The main attention should be paid to the maximum use of authentic samples of a foreign language, which would compensate for the lack of a language environment.

· Listening to authentic texts and teacher’s speech plays a leading role, as it gives students the opportunity to get acquainted with the options for combining words ( collocations )

and examples of their use in the speech of native speakers.

· The development of educational programs should be based on the provisions of computational linguistics and discourse theory, and the principle of word compatibility should be the main one when creating lexical-type programs (see Lexical syllabus, p. 85).

· The leading role is given to oral types of speech activity.

(PPP -
presentation , practice , production )
teaching model is rejected and the “observation - hypothesis - experimentation”
(ONE - observe , hypothesise , experiment ) model is widely used.
· Tolerant attitude towards errors, due to the fact that they are considered as a natural result of the process of cognition and language acquisition (Lewis 1993, pp. vi-vii).

The contribution of supporters of the lexical approach to teaching to the methodology lies in the fact that they pay special attention to the content side of the utterance, to the meaning conveyed by one or another lexical unit. Grammar is not given due attention, which leads to a large number of errors and disrupts the communication process.

Eclecticism

Eclectic approach

to training, which is based on provisions characteristic of various methods, allows the use and combination within one method of features inherent in opposing methods, such as communicative and audiolingual, communicative and cognitive, etc.

An eclectic approach does not mean a haphazard, chaotic accumulation of provisions from different methods. It is more correct to call this approach combined, since the term has a positive connotation. The use of a combined approach is justified if the elements inherent in different methods are aligned in

a unified logical system and contribute to more effective teaching of a foreign language. An example of an eclectic approach can be the communicative-cognitive approach - an approach to learning adopted in modern domestic methodological science, which uses the provisions of the communicative and cognitive approaches.

The eclectic approach finds its expression in the development of programs that are essentially combined, since they include structures and lexical units characteristic of the structural and lexical approaches, speech functions used in the functional-content approach, a list of skills and other components, which are usually contained in the program. Such programs turn out to be the most effective and detailed, as they describe the learning process from different angles.

Integrated approach

Integrated Approach

to learning is based on the interconnected formation of skills in all four types of speech activity - listening, speaking, reading and writing.

The English term integrated approach can be correlated with the concept of “the principle of interconnected training in all types of communication,” which is widely used in Russian methodology. According to this principle, various types of speech activity can act as a goal and means of learning; for example, learning to extract information from a text (reading as a learning goal) can be combined with subsequent discussion of what has been read (reading as a means of teaching speaking) and writing written work based on the material read and discussed (reading and speaking as a means of teaching writing).

It should be noted, however, that the generally accepted sequence of work on the formation of types of speech activity is as follows: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Thus, when introducing new language material, its training and skill formation are carried out first in listening, then in speaking, and only after that in reading and writing.

Comprehension approach

Auditive approach

is based on the proposition that teaching a foreign language should imitate the process of children acquiring their native language.

According to this approach, the learning process is based on the following principles:

· Listening as a receptive type of speech activity is leading in the learning process; the formation of skills to understand oral speech should precede the formation of productive oral speech skills.

· Learning to produce speech begins only after the ability to understand speech by ear has been developed.

· Training should be based on the transfer of listening skills to other types of speech activity. Thus, teaching oral speech should be based on the transfer of skills that have already been developed in listening.

· The main attention should be paid to the meaning of the linguistic phenomenon being studied, and not to its form.

· The learning process should be designed to avoid stress on students (Richards and Rodgers 1991, pp. 87-88).

This approach is implemented in such methods of teaching foreign languages as the method of relying on physical actions, the natural approach of Krashen and others,

2. Language teaching methods: historical overview

Grammar-translation method

Grammar - translation method

Teaching foreign languages is based on an understanding of language as a system and relies on a cognitive approach to learning. This method was widespread in Europe when teaching Greek and Latin, and in the 19th century it began to be used in the teaching of modern languages - French, German, English. In the USA it is known as the “Prussian method”.

The main provisions of the grammar-translation method are the following:

· The purpose of training is reading literature, since a foreign language is considered as a general educational subject and its role is to develop the intellect and logical thinking of students.

· The main focus is on written language, teaching oral language is not provided, speaking and listening are used only as a means of learning.

· The basic unit of learning is the sentence. (There were attempts to use the text, but this direction - the textual-translation method - was not widely used, since working with the text turned out to be very difficult for students.)

· Vocabulary training is carried out on the basis of words selected from reading texts; a bilingual dictionary, lists of words with their translation into the native language, memorization, and exercises in translation from and into the native language are widely used.

· Grammar is studied on the basis of deductive and systematic approaches, using rules, translation exercises, and comparing the grammatical phenomena being studied with the corresponding phenomena in the native language.

· Translation is the goal and means of teaching, the main method of semantization, therefore much attention is paid to translation exercises; examination tasks mainly consist of written translation.

Due to its large volume, this material is placed on several pages: 1

Behavioral approach in political science

The usual legal method in political science, which studied legal and political institutions, was replaced by the behavioral method in the 50s. Its purpose was to study the nature of the political behavior of people as citizens and political groups. This method made it possible to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze political processes.

The behaviorist approach in political science is used to study the behavior of an individual as part of the political system and the incentives that motivate him to action - motives, interests. Thanks to him, such concepts as “personality”, “attitude”, “beliefs”, “public opinion”, “behavior of the electorate” began to be heard in political science.

Main points

The focus should shift from political institutions to individual behavior within the framework of the life of the state.
Basic credo: Political science must also study what is directly observable using rigorous empirical methods.
The dominant motive for participation in political activity is based on psychological orientation.
The study of political life should strive to reveal the cause-and-effect relationships that exist in society.

Representatives of behaviorism in political science

The founders of the behavioral approach to politics are C. Merriam, G. Gosnell, G. Lasswell. They concluded that political science needed methods of “rational” control and social planning. Using Thurstone's idea about the connection between human behavior and his attitudes, scientists adapted it to political science and made it possible to move from the analysis of government institutions as the main object of study to the analysis of power, political behavior, public opinion and elections.

This idea was continued in the works of P. Lazersfeld, B. Barelson, A. Campbell, D. Stokes and others. They analyzed the election process in America, summarized the behavior of people in a democratic society and came to several conclusions:

participation of the majority of citizens in elections is the exception rather than the rule;
political interest depends on a person's level of education and income;
the average citizen, as a rule, is poorly informed about the political life of society;
election results largely depend on group loyalty;
political science must develop to benefit real human problems in times of crisis.

Thus, the development of the behavioral method in political science produced a real revolution and became a prerequisite for the formation of an applied science about the political life of society.