One of the stages of cognition of the surrounding world is the process of interpretation. How does a person understand what he sees, hears, feels or receives? Using examples, you can understand that the world in the eyes of each person is perceived differently from others. Here you can select synonyms that characterize this phenomenon.
The psychological help website psymedcare.ru constantly focuses the attention of readers on the fact that even the information provided in articles is perceived differently by everyone. Why is this happening? From the interpretation that a person carries out in his head when he reads, sees, perceives something.
It's one thing to get information. Another is to draw certain conclusions. Interpretation can be called a person’s tendency to draw conclusions when he explains to himself what he saw, heard, read, etc.
What is interpretation?
Interpretation means deciphering, explaining, paraphrasing, interpreting the meaning of something. A person does this both consciously and unconsciously, which depends on the situation in which this process occurs.
The interpretation is easy to explain with this example. Why doesn't the world seem friendly? The answer lies in the person himself, who looks at the world and sees it as it seems to him. Please note that there are people who are happy in life, and there are people who are unhappy. But they all live in the same world. Why do the destinies of different people differ, although the world in which they live is the same?
Here many will say that upbringing, environment, culture and society influence the formation of a particular lifestyle for each person. This is true. But first of all, what happens in a person’s head, in his thoughts plays a major role.
The world itself is friendly, harmonious and fair. Then where do dangers, fears, problems, uncertainty, etc. come from? All this happens in the head of the person himself. Everyone is afraid of something that is not currently threatening them. And since he is still afraid, despite the real absence of danger, he takes certain actions to protect himself. In reality, there is no threat, but the person is afraid and takes actions that “protect him.” Naturally, this may cause a certain reaction in other people who may already be protecting themselves from the real danger posed by a frightened person. This is how a chain reaction occurs, when the world is actually friendly, but people don’t see it and are influenced by their own invented fears.
Depending on whether you are afraid or happy, you act in one way or another. At the same time, the real world and your surroundings may be the same. Under the same conditions, you can be both angry and happy. And often it is not external circumstances, but your own thoughts that provoke you to behave in one way or another.
Now imagine what happens if a person is afraid, although in the real world nothing threatens him. The man defends himself. But from whom? In the real world he is not in danger, but he is defending himself. Accordingly, the people around him will either begin to defend themselves in response, or will distance themselves from the frightened interlocutor. And to the person who is afraid, the world will seem hostile.
This is how it happens that the world itself is friendly, but depending on what one or another individual thinks about it, it becomes colorful, gray, or gloomy. The world is the same for everyone, but in the eyes of beholders it is painted in different colors. And this only says one thing: it depends only on you what color the world in which you live will be painted.
Interpretation is the assessment that a person gives of what he perceives. Perception occurs at different levels:
- At the analyzer level: vision, hearing, smell, etc.
- At the level of words.
- At the level of actions.
- At the level of feelings and sensations.
Perceiving information from the environment in various ways, a person analyzes it. He gives her an assessment, explains it in a way convenient for himself, paraphrases it to make it clear. Often this process occurs unconsciously.
Interpretation can also be directed, where a person uses existing knowledge to decipher specific data. For example, we can talk about the interpretation of analyzes that were obtained as a result of research or diagnostics. A person uses the acquired knowledge to decipher the data that he received. This allows him to make informed conclusions that are considered reliable.
There is nothing complicated in understanding such a term as interpretation. Synonyms for this concept can be:
- Understanding.
- Explanation.
- Drawing conclusions.
- Decoding, etc.
Free association method
The essence of the method is that the patient tells the psychotherapist everything that currently comes to his mind, without caring at all about the content of his verbal flow, even if it is completely unacceptable for the patient himself. The initial concept (topic) can be anything - an object, numbers, image, word, etc., or the absence of any topic at all.
How is it that repressed material can nevertheless emerge into consciousness? When using the method of free association (when the elements of the output material are not rationally connected), the controlling function of consciousness is partially blocked, which means that psychological defenses do not work as effectively, which allows the repressed material to break out, in an explicit, and more often, encrypted form.
When conducting such a session, which usually lasts about an hour, the patient lies relaxed on the couch and does not see the psychoanalyst, this is important because the more relaxed the patient is, the less resistance to therapy on his part.
An incoherent monologue of a client, in the company of an analyst observing him, provides the most valuable material for subsequent work, because no matter how absurd this stream of words may seem, all the same, our thinking initially moves in the direction of concepts that are significant to us, which, sooner or later, make themselves known know. When researching, the following facts are important: the content of the client’s statements and their sequence. Of particular importance is the material that causes difficulties or internal resistance.
The subsequent identification of significant material and its interpretation is an important task for the psychoanalyst, since the reliability of this interpretation determines the success of the entire therapy as a whole.
Interpretation of research results
A person is constantly engaged in interpretation in the process of obtaining research results. This happens in any area where tests, examinations, diagnostics, etc. are carried out. A person receives specific data that should tell him what to do next. A striking example is the diagnostic examination of patients by doctors before prescribing treatment.
Interpretation becomes difficult if a person receives results that do not correspond to theory and expectations. In this case, the results are double-checked, otherwise it is necessary to revise the theoretical basis on which a person bases his conclusions.
The following interpretation methods are distinguished:
- Genetic – where the chain of phylogenetic and ontogenetic development can be traced.
- Structural - where the permanent structures of a certain system, relationships between parts, etc. are first studied. Based on this, explanations are made.
- Functional - where each object is given a specific function that it performs in the environment.
- Complex – where an explanation of an object or phenomenon is given from different points of view. Here, not one, but several sciences are used, which have their own theories regarding a specific subject.
- Systemic - where a separate object is considered as a whole system that interacts with the environment in a certain way.
In many precise fields, research is being conducted that requires interpretation. Here everything is basically based on knowledge that has already been obtained, developed and recorded in a certain area. The results in this case are interpreted on the basis of knowledge that has already shown its reliability in this field of research.
What is the idea of psychoanalysis based on?
According to Freud, due to the contradiction between different personality structures, inevitable tension arises, which manifests itself in the form of neurotic states, neurotic behavior and/or mental disorders. The main contradiction, within the framework of such a personality structure, can be seen between natural desires (and the ID aspirations arising from them) and the Super Ego, which limits these aspirations. What happens then?
The natural aspirations of the individual come into conflict with social and personal attitudes, the source of which is perfectly understood by the EGO (I), in contrast to the former (ID), located in the subconscious. The natural urges of the ID in most cases (but not always) are considered by the EGO as unacceptable and threatening to the ideals of the Super Ego, and at the same time to social norms.
*These statements do not fully apply to societies where ID desires are considered socially acceptable and natural, this, in part, concerns the situation in so-called primitive communities.
The Ego's task is to reduce psychological tension (neurosis) without conflicting with personal ideals and morals. In cases where this cannot be done directly, through the satisfaction of these desires, then the frustrations from failure to fulfill problematic aspirations are partly leveled out by psychological defenses.
According to Freud, unsatisfied impulses are mostly suppressed and repressed into the area of the unconscious, where, nevertheless, they continue to exist in a form not recognized by the individual. Repressed aspirations manifest themselves in the form of psychological tension (neurosis), which naturally causes suffering to the individual.
As a result of his work with patients suffering from neuroses, Freud found out that some relief was brought by the fact of remembering and recognizing traumatic contents when, for one reason or another, they surfaced (remembered) from the subconscious. But for this therapeutic effect to occur, several conditions were required.
First, it was necessary to remember the circumstances of the development of the traumatic situation, and secondly, it was necessary to realize its original meaning.
One of Freud's postulates says that repressed material always strives to return to consciousness, however, it is blocked by psychological defenses. It was these blockages that were a problem because they interfered with memories. In addition, even if the contents of the subconscious were manifested in the patient’s consciousness, it was by no means in an explicit form, but more often in a veiled, coded form, in the form of certain symbols.
Methods of “extracting” memories of traumatic events from the unconscious and their subsequent interpretation are one of the main methods of psychoanalysis; this process takes quite a long time. In classical Freudian psychoanalysis, the following material is used, the source of which is the analysand (client) - free associations, transference, dreams and their interpretations, slips of the tongue, forgetting, analysis of resistance, as well as the method of interpretation.
Interpretation in psychology
Interpretation is actively used in psychology. This term refers to explaining to the client the meaning of his words and actions. The psychologist listens carefully and communicates with the client in the process of his work. He has his own understanding of the situation, interpretation of what is happening, conclusions regarding what he experienced. At the end, the specialist draws conclusions based on what he heard.
Undoubtedly, in psychological work, a specialist uses his knowledge, which he acquired in the process of training and practice. Each person is individual, but the psychologist must rely on certain psychological theories that help him draw specific conclusions in the process of working with the client.
Many people are familiar with the phenomenon of using tests in the process of communicating with a psychologist. Depending on the focus of the work, the psychologist offers to take a test that should answer a specific question. Some clients have confidence in these tests, while others have no confidence at all. This is normal in a situation where the test does not take into account the individual characteristics of each client.
The following interpretation methods are used in psychology:
- Descriptive – indicates the current state of a person.
- Genetic - tells how the client came to the situation that has developed with him in the present time.
- Forecasting – a forecast is made of what will happen in the future with the client.
- Evaluative – assessments and recommendations are given by a specialist.
In psychological practice, projective tests are also often used, when a person draws a picture of a certain situation. Basically, the task is to draw certain objects or depict something that worries a person (on a free theme). Attention is paid to details, which, according to psychologists, are drawn differently for all clients depending on their mental state.
It is by the shapes, strokes, colors of the drawing itself and other indicators that one can determine what is happening to a person. These conclusions are also made on the basis of scientific and proven data, which the specialist simply uses in his work.
Each person has his own vision of the world. Even when reading the same text, people understand it differently. Someone perceives words in their literal meaning, someone begins to look for the hidden meaning of what was said, and someone may even remember what happened in his life, and therefore understand the text in a way that is familiar to him. Interpretation is also used in literature, that is, when reading books, magazines, and various texts.
The reader must have noticed that people perceive the same text read differently. This is explained by many factors:
- Beliefs.
- Desires.
- Life experience.
- Values.
- Even understanding this or that word.
The same text is perceived differently, because people read it not as it is written, but as they would enjoy reading it.
The process of interpretation is also influenced by the social environment and the era in which a person lives:
- In antiquity, allegories and metaphors were often used.
- During the Middle Ages there were popular biblical texts and scriptures.
You should also take into account the style of writing the text, which completely depends on the author, who also understands in his own way how to write a work, what meaning to put into it, what details to focus on, etc.
- 8.1. Interpretation and synthesis of research results
- 8.2. Forms for presenting research results
Topic 8. Interpretation and presentation of the results of psychological research
8.1. Interpretation and synthesis of research results
Methods of data interpretation are more correctly called approaches, since they are primarily explanatory principles that predetermine the direction of interpretation of research results. In scientific practice, genetic, structural, functional, complex and systemic approaches have been developed. Using one method or another does not mean discarding others.
Genetic
approach is a way of studying and explaining phenomena (including mental ones), based on an analysis of their development both in ontogenetic and phylogenetic plans. This requires establishing: 1) the initial conditions for the occurrence of the phenomenon; 2) the main stages and 3) the main trends of its development. The goal of the genetic approach is to identify the connection between the phenomena being studied over time and to trace the transition from lower to higher forms.
Most often, the genetic approach is used when interpreting results in developmental psychology: comparative, age, historical. Any longitudinal study involves the use of the approach in question.
The genetic approach is considered as a methodological implementation of one of the basic principles of psychology, namely the principle of development.[87] With this vision, other options for implementing this principle are considered as modifications of the genetic approach (historical and evolutionary approaches).
Structural
approach – a direction focused on identifying and describing the structure of objects (phenomena). It is characterized by: in-depth attention to the description of the current state of objects; clarification of their inherent timeless properties; interest not in isolated facts, but in the relationships between them. As a result, a system of relationships is built between the elements of the object at various levels of its organization.[88]
The advantage of the structural approach is the ability to visually present the results in the form of various models. These models can be given in the form of descriptions, a list of elements, a graphic diagram, classification, etc. Examples of such modeling can be found in S. Freud, G. Eysenck, etc.
The structural approach is often used in studies devoted to the study of the constitutional organization of the psyche and its material substrate - the nervous system. This approach led to the creation of I.P. Pavlov’s typology of higher nervous activity, which was later developed by B.M. Teplov and V.D. Nebylitsyn. Structural models of the human psyche in spatial and functional aspects are presented in the works of V.A. Ganzen, [89] V.V. Nikandrova[90] and others.
Functional
the approach is focused on identifying and studying the functions of objects (phenomena). It is used mainly in the study of connections between an object and its environment. This approach is based on the principle of self-regulation and maintaining the balance of objects in reality. Examples of the implementation of the functional approach in the history of science are such well-known directions as functional psychology and behaviorism. A classic example of the implementation of the functional approach in psychology is the dynamic field theory of K. Lewin. In modern psychology, the functional approach is enriched with components of structural and genetic analysis. The concept of multi-level and multi-phase nature of all human mental functions, operating simultaneously at all levels as a single whole, is considered generally well-known. Most authors of the corresponding models also consider the elements of structures as functional units that personify certain connections between a person and reality.
Complex
approach is a direction that considers the object of research as a set of components to be studied using an appropriate set of methods. Components can be both relatively homogeneous parts of the whole, and its heterogeneous sides, characterizing the object under study in different aspects.
Often, an integrated approach involves studying a complex object using the methods of various sciences, i.e., organizing interdisciplinary research. Obviously, it involves the use, to one degree or another, of all previous interpretive methods.
A striking example of the implementation of an integrated approach in science is the concept of human science, according to which man, as an object of study, is subject to coordinated research of a large complex of sciences. In psychology, this idea of the complexity of the study of man was clearly formulated by B.G. Ananyev.[91] A person is considered simultaneously as a representative of a biological species (individual), a bearer of consciousness and an active element of cognitive and reality-transforming activity (subject), a subject of social relations (personality) and a unique unity of socially significant biological, social and psychological characteristics (individuality).
System
approach is a methodological direction in the study of reality, considering any fragment of it as a system. The founder of the systems approach as an integral methodological and methodological component of scientific knowledge can be considered the Austrian scientist who moved to the USA, L. Bertalanffy, who developed the general theory of systems.[92] A system is a certain integrity that interacts with the environment and consists of many elements that are in certain relationships and connections with each other. The organization of these connections between elements is called structure. An element is the smallest part of a system that retains its properties within a given system. Further dismemberment of this part leads to the loss of the corresponding properties. The properties of elements are determined by their position in the structure and, in turn, determine the properties of the system. But the properties of the system are not reduced to the sum of the properties of the elements. The system as a whole synthesizes (combines and generalizes) the properties of parts and elements, as a result of which it possesses properties of a higher level of organization, which, in interaction with other systems, can appear as its functions. Any system can be considered, on the one hand, as a combination of simpler (small) subsystems with their own properties and functions, and on the other, as a subsystem of more complex (larger) systems.
System research is carried out using system analysis and synthesis. In the process of analysis, the system is isolated from the environment, its composition (set of elements), structure, functions, integral properties and characteristics, system-forming factors, and relationships with the environment are determined. In the process of synthesis, a model of a real system is created, the level of generalization and abstraction of the description of the system is increased, the completeness of its composition and structures, patterns of development and behavior are determined.
The description of objects as systems, i.e. system descriptions, perform the same functions as any other scientific descriptions - explanatory and predictive. But more importantly, system descriptions perform the function of integrating knowledge about objects.
A systematic approach in psychology makes it possible to reveal the commonality of mental phenomena with other phenomena of reality. This makes it possible to enrich psychology with ideas, facts, and methods of other sciences and, conversely, to penetrate psychological data into other areas of knowledge. It allows you to integrate and systematize psychological knowledge, reduce the volume and increase the clarity of descriptions, reduce subjectivity in the interpretation of mental phenomena, helps to see gaps in knowledge about specific objects, identify tasks for further research, and sometimes predict the properties of objects about which there is no information by extrapolation and interpolation of available information.
The approaches discussed above are actually organic components of a systems approach. Some authors compare these approaches with the corresponding levels of human qualities that constitute the subject of psychological research (V.P. Kuzmin [93] and others).
Currently, most scientific research is carried out in line with a systems approach. The most complete coverage of the systems approach in relation to psychology was found in the works of V.A. Ganzen,[94] A.A. Krylova,[95] B.F. Lomov,[96] A. Rappoport[97], etc.
8.2. Forms for presenting research results
The completion of any research work is the presentation of the results in the form that is accepted by the scientific community. It is necessary to distinguish between two main forms of presenting results: qualification and research.
Qualifying work
– coursework, diploma work, dissertation, etc. – serves to ensure that a student, graduate student or applicant, having presented his scientific research, receives a document certifying the level of competence. Requirements for such work, the method of their execution and presentation of results are set out in the relevant instructions and regulations adopted by academic councils.
Research results
– these are the results obtained during the research activities of a scientist. Presentation of scientific results usually occurs in three forms: 1) oral presentations; 2) publications; 3) electronic versions. In any of these forms there is a description. V. A. Ganzen understands description as any form of presentation of information about the results obtained in a study.[98]
There are the following options for presenting information: verbal form (text, speech), symbolic (signs, formulas), graphic (diagrams, graphs), object-like (layouts, material models, films, etc.).
Verbal
form is the most common option for presenting descriptions.
Any scientific message is, first of all, a text organized according to certain rules. There are two types of texts: in natural
language (“natural”, ordinary) and in
scientific
language. Typically, the presentation of the results of scientific research is a “mixed” text, where fragments formulated in strictly scientific language are included in the natural speech structure. These languages cannot be strictly distinguished: scientific terms enter into everyday circulation, and science draws words from natural language to denote newly discovered aspects of reality. But unlike everyday use, each scientific term has an unambiguous subject content. In psychology, such words as “personality”, “attention”, “feeling”, etc. are used as scientific terms. Here the line between scientific and everyday terminology is very thin, which creates an additional difficulty for the author-psychologist.
The main requirement for a scientific text is consistency and logic of presentation. The author should, if possible, not load the text with redundant information, but can use metaphors and examples in order to draw attention to a part of the reasoning that is particularly significant for understanding the essence. A scientific text, in contrast to a literary text or everyday speech, is very clichéd - stable structures and phrases predominate in it (in this it is similar to “clerical” - the bureaucratic language of business papers). The role of such cliches is extremely important, since the reader’s attention is not distracted by literary delights or incorrect presentation, but is focused on significant information: judgments, conclusions, evidence, numbers, formulas. “Scientific” cliches actually play an important role as “frameworks”, a standard setting for new scientific content.
The text consists of statements. Each statement has a certain logical form. There are basic logical forms of statements: 1) inductive - generalizing some empirical material; 2) deductive - a logical conclusion from the general to the specific or a description of the algorithm; 3) analogy – “transduction”; 4) interpretation or commentary - “translation”, revealing the content of one text by creating another.
Geometric
(spatial) descriptions are a traditional way of encoding scientific information. Since the geometric description complements and explains the text, it is “tied” to the linguistic description. The geometric description is clear. It allows you to simultaneously present a system of relationships between individual variables studied in an experiment. The information capacity of the geometric description is very large.
Psychology uses several basic forms of graphic
presentation of scientific information. For the primary presentation of data, the following graphic forms are used: charts, histograms and distribution polygons, as well as various graphs.
The initial way to represent data is to depict a distribution. For this purpose, histograms and distribution polygons are used. Often, for clarity, the distribution of the indicator in the experimental and control groups is depicted in one figure.
bar chart
is a “bar” diagram of the frequency distribution of a characteristic in a sample. When constructing histograms, the values of the measured quantity are plotted on the abscissa axis, and the frequencies or relative frequencies of occurrence of a given range of quantities in the sample are plotted on the ordinate axis.
In the distribution area
the number of subjects who have a given value of a trait (or fall within a certain value interval) is designated by a point with coordinates. The points are connected by straight line segments. Before constructing a distribution polygon or histogram, the researcher must divide the range of the measured value, if the characteristic is given on an interval or ratio scale, into equal segments. It is recommended to use at least five, but no more than ten gradations. When using a naming scale or an ordinal scale, this problem does not arise.
If a researcher wants to more clearly present the relationship between various quantities, for example, the proportion of subjects with different qualitative characteristics, then it is more profitable for him to use a diagram.
In a sector pie chart, the size of each sector is proportional to the amount of occurrence of each type. The size of a pie chart can represent the relative size of a sample or the significance of a feature.
The transitional option from graphical to analytical information display is primarily graphs,
representing the functional dependence of traits. The ideal way to complete an experimental study is to discover a functional relationship between the independent and dependent variables, which can be described analytically.
Two different types of graphs can be distinguished: 1) displaying the dependence of changes in parameters over time; 2) displaying the relationship between the independent and dependent variables (or any two other variables). A classic version of the representation of time dependence is the connection discovered by G. Ebbinghaus between the volume of reproduced material and the time elapsed after memorization (“forgetting curve”). Similar are the numerous “learning curves” or “fatigue curves” that show changes in performance efficiency over time.
In psychology, graphs of the functional dependence of two variables are often found: the laws of G. Fechner, S. Stevens (in psychophysics), a pattern describing the dependence of the probability of reproducing an element on its place in the series (in cognitive psychology), etc.
L.V. Kulikov gives novice researchers a number of simple recommendations for constructing graphs.[99]
1. The graph and text should complement each other.
2. The graph must be self-explanatory and include all necessary symbols.
3. It is not allowed to display more than four curves on one graph.
4. The lines on the graph should reflect the significance of the parameter; the most important parameters must be indicated by numbers.
5. Labels on the axes should be located at the bottom and left.
6. Points on different lines are usually designated by circles, squares and triangles.
If it is necessary to present the amount of data scatter on the same graph, then they should be depicted in the form of vertical segments so that the point indicating the average is located on the segment (in accordance with the asymmetry indicator).
The type of graphs are diagnostic profiles, which characterize the average severity of the measured indicators in a group or a specific individual.
When presenting information using topological characteristics, graphs are used.
For example, D. Wexler’s hierarchical model of intelligence is presented in the form of a graph.
Along with graphs, spatial-graphical descriptions are used in psychology,
which take into account the structure of parameters and the relationships between elements. An example is the description of the structure of intelligence - the “cube” of D. Guilford. Another option for using a spatial description is the space of emotional states according to W. Wundt or the description of personality types according to G. Eysenck (“Eysenck’s circle”).
If a metric is defined in the feature space, a more strict representation of the data is used. The position of a point in the space shown in the figure corresponds to its real coordinates in the feature space. In this way, the results of multidimensional scaling, factor and latent structural analysis, as well as some variants of cluster analysis are presented.
The most important way to present the results of scientific work is through numerical values, in particular:
1) indicators of central tendency (mean, mode, median);
2) absolute and relative frequencies;
3) dispersion indicators (standard deviation, dispersion, percentile dispersion);
4) the values of the criteria used when comparing the results of different groups;
5) coefficients of linear and nonlinear connection of variables, etc.
The standard form of tables for presenting primary results is as follows: subjects are arranged in rows, and values of measured parameters are arranged in columns. The results of mathematical statistical processing are also summarized in tables. Existing computer packages for statistical data processing allow you to choose any standard form of tables for presenting them in a scientific publication.
Table of contents
Bottom line
Interpretation plays an important role in the life of a person who always strives for understanding. In order to live easier and not encounter troubles, a person must understand circumstances, people, the meaning of their actions, situations, etc. The result of all reasoning will influence what conclusions a person will draw and actions he will take based on them. After all, first a person assesses the situation, draws conclusions, experiences specific emotions, and then begins to act.
Interpretation often occurs on a subconscious level, that is, automatically. A person does not think, but uses those patterns and stereotypes that he has already learned. This helps him save energy, which is why he reacts faster to current events. How good this is depends on the results he ultimately achieves.
Prose of life
Interpreting a prose text is fraught with the same difficulties as a poetic text. Again, different, individual interpretations of individual concepts, again an incomplete understanding of words - the only thing that makes it easier is that in prose there are usually fewer means of artistic expression, and, as a rule, they do not make it difficult to understand the text.
In principle, for successful interpretation, you can engage in precise “translation”, if you can call this phenomenon that way - clearly check the lexical meaning of each word of the proposed fragment, select the optimal combinations for expressing thoughts - practically rewrite the text completely based on synonymous constructions. Or you can use a technique that linguists call a linguistic guess: in this case, it is not necessary to know the exact meaning of each word, it becomes clear from the situation.
The second method demonstrates a fairly high level of language proficiency, but at the same time does not provide one hundred percent accuracy of interpretation. The advantages of this method include the fact that the same word can have a number of lexical meanings, different in tone (for example, “ambitiousness” can be both a positive and negative quality depending on the context), and linguistic guesswork makes it possible to avoid the monotonous search for the correct meaning, simply demonstrating the necessary semantic nuance in the text.
