In our crazy world, very often communication between people begins not in person, but over the phone or, even worse, through computer correspondence. Due to the fact that a person, to a greater extent, perceives the world as a set of pictures and images, in such situations we cannot experience the fullness of communication. Therefore, our imagination carefully draws the image of the interlocutor, endowing him with certain external characteristics, attitude to life, character, favorite poses, habits and everything else that we are used to noticing in our communication partners. The resulting portrait is largely determined by the “artist” himself - we can endow the speaker with those qualities that we love or hate in ourselves, or those that we lack. Ultimately, the resulting picture depends on who we are looking for in the interlocutor and how suitable he is for this role. Therefore, a girl who is actively searching for a life partner will attribute to all pleasant male voices an appearance that she likes. And a disappointed woman will perceive the owner of the same voice as another “adventurer” who will “play and quit.” A cheerful man in the prime of his life will discern sexual attractiveness behind a young woman's voice, while a busy businessman will be more likely to try to understand how reliable you are. So how revealing can a person’s speech be?
What can you learn about a person by his communication style?
Of course, our life attitudes greatly influence how we imagine our interlocutor, but we will endow him with personal qualities based on “how” and “what” he says. The meanings are: rudeness - politeness, formality - ease, friendliness - conflict and much more. Therefore, let's take a closer look at the characteristics of speech.
What is it like?
A classification of types of speech can exist according to the form in which information is exchanged. That is, speech can be oral (using sounds) or written (using special symbols).
If we focus on the number of participants in communication, then it can be divided into monological, dialogical and polylogical. The style of speech depends on the sphere of communication in which it functions, and can be scientific, journalistic, official business, artistic or colloquial.
The classification of forms of speech according to compositional and structural characteristics, as well as according to content and semantics, classifies any type of speech either as a description, or as a narration, or as a reasoning. Let's take a closer look at each of these divisions.
What is speech needed for?
Scientists identify several basic functions of speech that everyone should know about.
- Speech is a kind of instrument through which people exchange feelings and thoughts with each other. Language acts as a means of communication.
- Thanks to speech, the assimilation and transmission of the collective experience accumulated by humanity occurs. Through language, people understand the world in which they live.
- To achieve the results of an activity, a person must organize and plan it. This process is only possible when he has language skills.
- With the help of speech, a person is able to influence the feelings and thoughts of other people.
The listed functions fully reveal the importance of language in the life of mankind.
Language and speech. Oral and written speech
By oral speech (a form contrasted with its written variety) we mean spoken speech, that is, sounding speech. It refers to the primary forms of existence of any language.
Written speech is understood as that speech that is depicted on a physical medium - paper, canvas, parchment, etc. using graphic writing signs designed specifically for this purpose. Historically, it appeared later than oral.
The form in which the Russian language mainly exists is called literary speech. Its main feature is the conscious use of means of communication with a focus on compliance with specific norms and rules. They are given in reference books, dictionaries and teaching aids. Norms are taught in schools, cultural institutions and the media.
In real communication conditions, written and spoken speech constantly intersect, interact and penetrate one another. Some genres related to written speech are subsequently voiced - these are oratory (including speech lessons) or drama. A literary work very often contains similar examples in the form of monologues and dialogues of the characters.
What kind of speech is there?
If we consider language in terms of the existence of its forms, we can distinguish oral and written. While writing or reading, written language works. What oral form does the person use? Listening and speaking are types of oral speech.
If we take into account the number of participants in the conversation, then the speech can be dialogical or monological. Translation from Greek makes it possible to understand that dialogue is a conversation between two or more persons, and monologue is a statement by one person.
From the point of view of speech pathologists, speech can be correct or incorrect. Linguists give a similar assessment of language. In their opinion, correct speech is literate speech, but it can have both positive and negative connotations. Incorrect (illiterate) contains a large number of language errors.
What is good about oral speech?
The most important advantage of oral speech over written speech is the ability to instantly transmit information. The difference between these two forms also lies in the fact that oral dialogue most often allows the participants to see each other and adjust the content and form of what is said depending on the reaction of the interlocutor.
Designed to be perceived by the human ear, oral speech does not require exact literal reproduction. In case of such a need, it is necessary to use certain technical means. In this case, everything is pronounced “right”, without preliminary corrections.
When communicating in writing, the author of the speech does not have the opportunity to provide feedback to his addressee. Therefore, the latter’s reaction has little effect. The reader subsequently has the opportunity to return to individual postulates any number of times, and the writer has the time and means to correct and supplement what is written.
The advantage of written communication is a more accurate and fixed presentation of information, the ability to transfer it to future times. Written speech serves as the basis for scientific and any business activity.
Listening is sometimes more difficult than speaking
Beautiful and correct speech is a sign of the socialization of a modern person. When a person has a thorough command of a language, this characterizes him as an educated individual. Despite the fact that today the correct use of words is a mandatory skill, it is necessary to determine why you need to be able to express yourself correctly:
- Oral speech makes it possible to exchange emotions, feelings, and important information.
- Thanks to the ability to formulate thoughts and pronounce words, humanity has been accumulating and transmitting vital information for hundreds of years.
- Knowledge of the language provides enormous opportunities to achieve your goals in any field.
- The ability to correctly formulate one’s thoughts in some cases can give a person a unique chance to change the opinions of other people, call them to certain actions, and influence their feelings and actions.
There are two forms of speech - oral and written. Oral form is divided into listening and speaking. In each of these areas you need to be able to communicate. Listening is a subtle process when a person sees how sincere the interest is in the eyes of his interlocutor. Speaking is also not easy. Sometimes in our thoughts speech flows in a coherent stream of beautiful and clever words, but as a result the thought is not formulated. This suggests that everything needs to be learned - both speaking and listening.
The best teacher is desire and practice, and the basis for communication and the ability to construct phrases must be sought in books.
Its other features...
The material form reproduced in writing using letters of the alphabet, in oral speech, are sound waves emitted by the human speech apparatus. Thanks to this, it has all the richness of intonation possibilities. The means of forming intonation are intensity, tempo of conversation, sound timbre, etc. Much of it depends on the clarity of pronunciation, the placement of logical stresses, and the length of pauses.
Important characteristics of oral speech are spontaneity, multichannelity and irreversibility. The origin of a thought and its expression occur almost simultaneously. Depending on the speaker’s speech experience and other circumstances, oral speech may be characterized by smoothness or intermittency and fragmentation.
How to improve your speech
First of all, you need to read more, and better classics and popular science literature. Thus, the book will help improve your literacy.
- Try to retell books you’ve read or movies you’ve watched more often. When telling a story, convey your feelings to your interlocutor and watch the reaction. Record the story and then listen to it to draw conclusions based on what you hear. This way you will understand your speech mistakes, pay attention to where you placed the stress incorrectly, and identify filler words.
- Expand your vocabulary. To do this, after hearing or reading a new word, find out its exact meaning and origin. There is no need to use fashionable foreign words inappropriately or inappropriately, because this is unacceptable for literate speech.
- When reading literature, memorize interesting phrases and figures of speech and look into a spelling dictionary from time to time. However, be careful with unknown or little-used words.
- Try to place stress correctly when speaking, because incorrect stress is a sign of illiteracy. If you don’t know where to put the emphasis in a word, then it’s better not to use this word or look it up in the dictionary and learn it by heart.
During the conversation, maintain a friendly tone and change your intonation depending on the situation. To make your tone and intonation richer, learn to read with expression.
...and types
Focusing on the reaction of listeners, the speaker can highlight the most important points, use comments, clarifications and repetitions. These features most characterize unprepared oral speech. The classification of speech on this basis contrasts it with another - prepared, existing in the form of lectures or reports.
This form is characterized by a clear structure and thoughtfulness. In a spontaneously pronounced text, typical of unprepared oral speech, there are many pauses, repetitions of individual words and sounds that do not carry any meaning (such as “uh-uh”, “here”, “means”), the structures intended for pronunciation are sometimes disrupted. In such speech there are more speech errors, short, incomplete and not always correct sentences, and fewer participial and participial phrases.
The types of oral speech also differ in functional varieties. It can be scientific, journalistic, artistic, colloquial, and also used in the official business sphere.
About writing
Written speech is not intended for a specific interlocutor and depends entirely on the writer. As already noted, it arose at a historically later stage of human development and exists in the form of an artificially created sign system designed to record spoken sounds. That is, signs to designate emitted sounds serve as its material carriers.
Unlike oral speech, written speech not only serves for direct communication, but also allows one to assimilate and perceive knowledge accumulated throughout the development of all human society. Such speech is a means of communication in cases where direct dialogue is impossible, when the interlocutors are separated by time or space.
Signs of written speech
The exchange of messages in writing began already in ancient times. Nowadays, the role of writing has been reduced with the development of modern technologies (for example, the telephone), but with the invention of the Internet, as well as fax messages, forms of such speech have again become in demand.
Its main property can be considered the ability to long-term storage of transmitted information. The main feature of use is a strictly regulated book language. The main units of written speech are sentences, the task of which is to express logical semantic connections of a fairly complex level.
That is why written speech always contains well-thought-out sentences and is characterized by a fixed word order. Such speech is not characterized by inversion, that is, the use of words in the reverse order. In some cases this is completely unacceptable. Written speech is oriented towards visual perception, and therefore is clearly structured - pages are numbered, the text is divided into paragraphs and chapters, different types of fonts are used, etc.
Two levels of speech proficiency (correct and good speech). Mastering the norms of the Russian literary language
In grade 5, the section “Culture of oral and written speech” begins to be studied (§ 8). The textbook distinguishes two levels of speech proficiency: correct and good speech. Correct speech is a component of good speech. In order for speech to become correct , it is necessary to master the norms of the Russian literary language, i.e. correct if its structure does not violate the norms of the Russian literary language. Correctness is the main quality of good speech; it is understood on the basis of the “speech-language” connection and is based solely on linguistic factors.
Good speech , except for correctness, i.e. mastery of the norms of the Russian literary language, has other qualities of good speech: accuracy, logic, purity, expressiveness, appropriateness and richness.
Accuracy
how the quality of speech is based on knowledge of the subject of speech and on knowledge of the meanings of words. First of all, this is a strict correspondence of words to the designated objects (phenomena of reality). An incorrectly used word can lead to a speech error.
Logic
speech is closely related to accuracy.
Imprecise speech cannot be logical. Logical speech is achieved by correct, consistent and consistent combination of words in a sentence, clauses and parts in statements: I would like to express my gratitude to the doctor of our school.
This man has an always smiling face and a lot of experience. Purity
how the quality of speech is necessary for any statement.
so to speak
are not used unnecessarily ,
which means
,
for example
,
you understand
, etc. , dialect words, clericalisms, words from another language. Give an example with a letter.
Relevance
speech is a quality that determines such a selection of language means that makes speech meet the goals and conditions of communication. Appropriate speech corresponds to the topic of the message, its logical content, and the composition of listeners and readers. This concept was first formulated by A.S. Pushkin: “True taste does not consist in the unconscious rejection of such and such a word, such and such a phrase, but in a sense of conformity and proportionality.”
Wealth
or
the variety
of speech is created thanks to a large stock of words, phrases, and various syntactic structures. “For everything that exists in nature: water, air, sky, clouds, sun, rain, forests, swamps, rivers and lakes, meadows and fields, flowers and herbs, there are a great many good words and names in the Russian language,” – wrote K. Paustovsky.
I saw foliage not only gold and purple, but also scarlet, violet, brown, black, gray and almost white. The colors seemed especially soft because of the autumn haze that hung motionless in the air. And when it rained, the softness of the colors gave way to brilliance. The sky, covered with clouds, still provided enough light for the wet forests to burn in the distance like crimson fires. In the pine thickets, birches, sprinkled with gilding, trembled from the cold... The trees began to turn yellow from below: I saw aspens, red at the bottom and still completely green at the tops. (K. Paustovsky.)
Another key quality of good speech is expressiveness
. Expressive speech is speech that, with its liveliness and brightness, affects the feelings of the reader or listener.
We noted that in order to speak and write correctly, you need to master the norms of the Russian literary language.
The norm is the generally accepted use of linguistic means in oral and written speech. The norm is also the use recommended by a grammar, dictionary, reference book, supported by the use of famous masters of words. V.A. Itskovich gives the following definition of a norm: “ A norm is the meanings of words that objectively exist at a given time in a given language community, their phonetic structure, models of word formation and inflection and their real content, models of syntactic units - phrases, sentences - and their real filling".
E. Coseriu defines a norm as a set of the most stable, traditional implementations of elements of a language structure, selected and consolidated by public language practice.
In grade 5, the concept of all types of norms of the Russian literary language is given: orthoepic, accentological, word-formation, spelling, syntactic and punctuation. On page 39 there is a table that lists all types of norms and the meaning of each of them.
Orthoepic norm
establishes correct pronunciation.
Accentological norm
regulates the rules for placing stress. Violation of these norms leads to disturbances in oral speech.
Word formation norm
determines the choice of morphemes, their placement and combination as part of a new word:
observer - observer
. Failure to comply with this norm leads to errors in oral and written speech.
Spelling norm
determines the correct spelling of words. Failure to comply will result in spelling errors.
Syntactic norm
regulates the choice of sentence construction. Violation of the syntactic norm leads to the appearance of grammatical errors, i.e. to errors in oral and written speech.
Punctuation norm
establishes rules for placing punctuation marks.
Mastering the norms of the Russian literary language is the main condition for mastering correct speech and one of the conditions for mastering good speech.
Monologue and dialogue. Examples and essence of concepts
Classification of speech according to the number of participants was undertaken in ancient times. The division into dialogues and monologues was used in such areas as logic, rhetoric, and philosophy. The term “polylogue” arose at the end of the 20th century and refers to a conversation involving more than two people.
A form such as dialogue is characterized by alternating statements from both interlocutors in direct connection with a specific situation. The statements themselves are called replicas. In terms of semantic load, dialogue is an exchange of opinions that depend on each other.
The entire dialogue and any of its parts can be perceived as a separate textual act. The structure of a dialogue includes parts called beginning, base and ending. The first of these uses generally accepted forms of speech etiquette, a greeting or an introductory remark in the form of a question or judgment.
How to learn to speak correctly and beautifully?
Here are some tips for anyone who wants to improve their speech.
- First of all, you need to read regularly. Books may be different, but the classics are best, because they are still an example of the correct Russian language, despite some outdated elements. Delving into the “reasonable, kind, eternal” classical heritage, one should not neglect the most high-quality modern literature, which shows the current state of the Russian language.
- It is necessary to speak more in good literary language on various topics. Each time the volume of the text should increase, and its topic should change.
- Do not overload your speech with words whose meaning you do not understand. You shouldn’t get carried away with parasitic words (well, that’s, in general...). Every word in your statement should be as meaningful as possible.
- A good exercise is to select synonyms for a particular word. In addition, all kinds of “word games” are very useful.
- There is no need to use a large number of slang and obscene words. The complete exclusion of the latter is a controversial issue; a number of Russian classics (including Dostoevsky, Turgenev and Pushkin) willingly used “obscene language” and defended its right to exist, since it is part of the living Russian language. But it is better to refuse specialized vocabulary (for example, scientific terms): even if you understand their meaning, your listeners will not understand you.
In addition , we recommend taking our course on competent Russian speech, in which you can improve not only spelling, but also many other topics.
Author of the article: Sergey Semenov
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Key words:1Russian
What is dialogue like?
The main part can be from very short to very long. Any dialogue tends to be continued. As an ending, cues of agreement, response, or standard speech etiquette (“goodbye” or “all the best”) are used.
In the sphere of colloquial speech, dialogue is considered everyday and is conducted using colloquial vocabulary. Here, a poor choice of words, repetitions, and deviations from literary norms are allowed. Such dialogue is characterized by emotions and expression, unevenness, variety of topics, and deviation from the main line of discussion.
Dialogue is also found in literary sources. Examples are communication between heroes, a novel in letters, or authentic correspondence of historical figures.
It may or may not be very informative. In the latter case, it consists mainly of speech forms and does not contain useful information. An informative dialogue is characterized by the need for communication in order to obtain new data.
Let's talk about monologues
What is a monologue? Examples of it are no less common. This term denotes the statement of someone in an expanded form, intended for oneself or others and having a certain organization in the sense of composition and completeness. In a work of art, a monologue can become an integral component or an independent unit - for example, in the form of a one-man show.
In public life, speeches by speakers, lecturers, and speeches by radio and television announcers are practiced in the form of a monologue. Monologues are most characteristic of book speech in oral form (speeches in courts, lectures, reports), but it may not have a specific listener as its addressee and may not imply a response.
According to the purpose of the statement, this form of speech is either informational, persuasive, or stimulating. Informational is a monologue conveying knowledge. Examples are the same lectures, reports, reports or speeches. Persuasive speech is focused on the emotions of those who will listen to it. These are congratulations, parting words, etc.
Incentive speech, as the name suggests, is designed to motivate listeners to take certain actions. Examples include calls, protests and speeches by politicians.
Elite type of speech
The qualities of speech should also be considered from the perspective of its typology. The elite variety is the closest to literary and ethical standards of communication.
Speakers of this speech style of communication easily use their vocabulary properly. He is great due to his possession of the cultural, literary, scientific values of humanity. The carrier of this style of communication, thanks to his knowledge, has a large passive and active vocabulary.
The owner of the elite type of communication has the ability to think, which is achieved through a wide coverage of general cultural, fundamental texts. It is on them that such a person focuses his speech.
A speaker of an elite type of communication constantly replenishes his qualities of good speech in Russian on the basis of authoritative texts, and not from newspapers or television.
Polylogue - what kind of animal?
The classification of speech styles has recently (end of the last century) been supplemented with the concept of polylogue. Even among linguists it has not yet come into widespread use. This is a conversation between several people at once. Situationally, it is closer to dialogue, as it unites listeners and speakers. There is polylogue in the forms of discussions, conversations, games, meetings. There is an exchange of information contributed by everyone, and everyone is aware of what is being discussed.
The rules by which a polylogue is constructed are as follows: participants are instructed to speak convincingly and quite briefly; everyone who composes it is obliged to follow the plot of the discussion and be attentive; it is customary to ask questions and clarify unclear points, as well as make the necessary objections. The polylogue must be conducted in a correct and friendly manner.
Different types of texts
There are also different types of speech depending on the functions performed. The classification of speech according to this criterion divides it into texts that reflect actual reality and those that contain thoughts and reasoning about it. Depending on the meaning, any of them can be classified as narrative, descriptive or reasoning.
Descriptions depict a phenomenon with a list of characteristics inherent in it. It can be portrait, landscape, interior, everyday, scientific, etc. It is inherently static, and it is built on the main starting point contained in the object itself or its separate part. Thought develops by adding new features to what has been said.
The type called narrative is a story about events and actions that occur over time. Its composition includes a beginning with subsequent development, continuation, climax and ends with a denouement.
Reasoning is understood as confirmation and explanation of a certain thought or statement expressed in words. The composition usually consists of a thesis, its evidence and final conclusions.
...and styles
Modern linguistics has streamlined the very concept of “speech”. The classification of speech depending on the purpose of communication, as already mentioned at the beginning of the article, is reduced to five different speech styles (everyday or colloquial, scientific, official business, journalistic and artistic). Thus, the conversational style is used mainly in everyday life and in everyday communications. It is characterized by oral speech with a predominance of dialogues.
In the field of scientific and technical sphere, with the description of various theories and technologies, the scientific style prevails - strictly verified and not allowing free turns. Official business is used in the legislative sphere and in any type of formal communication. It is characterized by many fixed structures, a significant predominance of written speech, and a large number of monologues (reports, lectures, speeches, court speeches).
For the socio-political sphere, a journalistic style has always been and is being used, often existing in the form of bright, emotionally charged monologues of a stimulating nature.
The sphere of art is subject to artistic style. The variety of expressions, the wealth of forms and linguistic means reign here; strict official constructions are practically never found here.
The choice of genres and styles is dictated by the content of the speech and the type of its communicative orientation, in other words, by the purpose of communication. The techniques that will be used in a dialogue or monologue, as well as the compositional structure of each specific speech, depend on them.
The concept of speech activity
Definition 1
Speech activity is a process of active and purposeful interaction between people, which takes place in the form of communication, mediated by certain linguistic constructs and determined by the current situation.
The concept of speech activity is not uniform and generally accepted. Currently, as a rule, speech activity is considered from two points of view:
- speech activity is “language material”, which, along with the “language system” and “speech organization”, is one of the aspects of language and represents a set of individual acts of speaking and understanding; this definition of the concept of speech activity is considered Shcherbov’s understanding of speech activity, since it was introduced by L. V. Shcherba and a number of other Soviet scientists in the 1920s-1930s, and is used in the methodology of teaching foreign languages, where the concept of “types of speech activity” is actively cultivated (speaking, listening, reading, writing);
- speech activity is a type of activity that stands out along with labor, cognitive, play activities, which is characterized by psychological organization, that is, the presence of an objective motive, purposefulness, creative component, and is implemented through several successive phases (orientation, planning, implementation of the plan, control ); This understanding of speech activity actively spread in the 1960s, when psycholinguistics was formed as a holistic direction.
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In accordance with the degree of importance for the acting subjects, speech activity can act as an independent activity, which is characterized by its own system of motivation and consists of speech actions subordinate to the goal and speech operations corresponding to a specific situation, and in the form of individual speech acts that are built into one or another extralinguistic activities.
In the last quarter of the last century, within the framework of the psychological direction of linguistics, the concept of “communication activity” / “communicative activity” became widespread, in connection with which the concept of “speech activity” began to be used in a narrower meaning: it began to be understood as activity, the motive of which is associated only with production speech itself, and not with its use outside the communicative act.
