Personality is a qualitative individual characteristic that combines stable and permanent mental properties that determine a person’s behavior and attitude. Literally, translated from Greek, character means a sign, a trait. Character in the structure of personality combines the totality of its various qualities and properties that leave an imprint on behavior, activity and individual manifestation. A set of essential, and most importantly, stable properties and qualities determine a person’s entire lifestyle and his ways of reacting in a given situation.
The character of an individual is formed, determined and formed throughout his entire life journey. The relationship between character and personality is manifested in activity and communication, thereby determining typical modes of behavior.
Personality Traits
Any trait is some stable and unchangeable stereotype of behavior.
Characteristic personality traits in a general sense can be divided into those that set the general direction for the development of character manifestations in the complex (leading), and those that are determined by the main directions (minor). Leading traits allow you to reflect the very essence of character and show its main important manifestations. We must understand that any character trait of a person will reflect the manifestation of his attitude to reality, but this does not mean that any of his attitudes will directly be a character trait. Depending on the individual’s living environment and certain conditions, only some manifestations of relationships will become defining character traits. Those. a person may react aggressively to a particular irritant of the internal or external environment, but this will not mean that the person is evil by nature.
In the character structure of each person, there are 4 groups. The first group includes traits that determine the basis of personality, its core. These include: honesty and insincerity, integrity and cowardice, courage and cowardice, and many others. The second includes traits that demonstrate an individual’s attitude directly towards other people. For example, respect and contempt, kindness and anger, and others. The third group is characterized by the individual’s attitude towards himself. It includes: pride, modesty, arrogance, vanity, self-criticism and others. The fourth group is the attitude towards work, activity or work performed. And it is characterized by such traits as hard work and laziness, responsibility and irresponsibility, activity and passivity, and others.
Some scientists additionally identify another group that characterizes a person’s attitude towards things, for example, neatness and sloppiness.
They also distinguish such typological properties of character traits as abnormal and normal. Normal traits are characteristic of people who have a healthy psyche, while abnormal traits include people with a variety of mental illnesses. It should be noted that similar personality traits can be considered both abnormal and normal. It all depends on the degree of expression or whether it is an accentuation of character. An example of this could be healthy suspicion, but when it goes off scale, it leads to paranoia.
The determining role in the formation of personality traits is played by society and a person’s attitude towards it. It is impossible to judge a person without seeing how he interacts with the team, without taking into account his attachments, dislikes, comradely or friendly relations in society.
An individual's attitude towards any type of activity is determined by his relationships with other persons. Interaction with other people can encourage a person to be active and rationalize, or keep him in tension and give rise to his lack of initiative. An individual's idea of himself is determined by his relationships with people and his attitude to activity. The basis in the formation of personality consciousness is the direct relationship to other individuals. A correct assessment of another person’s personality traits is a fundamental factor in the formation of self-esteem. Also, it should be noted that when a person’s activity changes, not only the methods, methods and subject of this activity change, but also the person’s attitude towards himself in the new role of an actor changes.
2.6. Man, individual, personality
Social studies tutorial - Man
The concepts indicated in the title are often used as synonyms. However, there are significant semantic differences between them. Man is a being of the biological species homo sapiens. An individual is a representative of the human race, endowed with special traits that are different from other people. Each of us is an individual. Each person from birth is endowed with a special appearance, character, abilities, etc. The specific features that distinguish a person from the totality of his own kind constitute his individuality. It presupposes not only features of external appearance, but also a complex of socially significant qualities of an individual.
Each person is individual, but not every individual can become an individual. What qualities should a person have? At what age do they become one? There is no clear answer to these questions. From one point of view, a personality is a person who has a set of positive characteristics. According to another point of view, personality appears as something special, taken in a social aspect.
Personality is the integrity of a person’s social properties, a product of social development and the inclusion of the individual in the system of social relations through active substantive activity and communication.
An individual becomes a personality in the process of mastering social functions and developing self-awareness. Self-awareness is the awareness of one’s uniqueness as a subject of activity as a member of society. (The most important quality of a person is social activity, which can be considered in two manifestations. The first involves considering social activity as a property of a person, conditioned by his natural data and enhanced by qualities that are formed in the process of upbringing, education, communication and practical activity. Some people are naturally active , are energetic and active, which becomes noticeable already in early childhood. Others, on the contrary, are passive and inactive. Under the influence of many social factors, activity can develop, intensify or weaken. The second manifestation of social activity is associated with activity as some specific measure of activity. In this case activity can be expressed in specific indicators. An example is the measurement of labor activity. The criterion for social activity is the results of activity. The concept of “social activity” is closely related to the concept of “social subject” - a person capable of active social activity.
Sociology distinguishes such types of personality as normative (basic) and modal. A normative (basic) personality is a personality type accepted by the culture of the corresponding society, which most reflects the characteristics of a given culture. This is a kind of ideal type that society focuses on in raising the younger generation. In any social group, one can identify an individual with characteristics that most fully express the goals, conditions and patterns of functioning of this group. Thus, at a university there are ideas about what a student should be, in the army - a military man, at a factory - a worker, etc.
A modal (from the word “fashion”) personality is a person committed to the same cultural patterns as the majority of members of a given society. That is, this is the personality type that is most common in a given territory and at a given point in time. Modal personality reflects the real position of a person in society. For example, in the last decade of the 20th century. In Russia, the type of profit-oriented trading person has become widespread. It should be noted that in society there may be several types of modal personality, depending on the presence of different social groups.
The modal personality never corresponds to the normative one, although sometimes there are some overlaps. Deviations from the normative type, if they are quite significant, encounter resistance from society, which forces individuals to comply with generally accepted norms. In addition, a normative personality is more constant, while a modal personality is more dynamic. As living conditions change, personality types also change. Thus, a democratic society is characterized by a politically active type of personality, and an anti-democratic one is characterized by a type that obeys guidelines.
In conditions of radical changes in social life, a marginal personality type is becoming widespread, i.e. borderline personality: a person who has fallen out of his previous social environment and has failed to adapt to changed circumstances experiences mental discomfort, uncertainty about the future and seeks to join any social group to stabilize his position.
The formation of personality is influenced by many factors. First of all, it is heredity. From parents a person receives a set of individual properties of appearance, health, psyche, etc. But at the level of heredity, only psychophysiological properties are transmitted to a person. In most cases they play a secondary role. They can act as the main ones when a person is significantly different from those around him. In extreme cases, these are either physical and mental pathologies, or giftedness.
Another, more important factor is education - the process of purposeful influence on a person to form certain qualities in him. A person experiences educational influence from parents, teachers, and friends.
An important factor in personality formation is the social environment, i.e. those people among whom a person revolves, on whom he depends or who depend on him, on whom he is oriented or who are oriented towards him. There is a macro-environment (society as a whole, the system of education, upbringing, etc.) and a micro-environment (work collective, family, school). The individual and society interact with each other. Society can influence the formation of an individual and his actions. At the same time, the individual is capable of changing the social environment. The relationships that are formed and implemented in the process of such interaction are called social.
Social relations are a stable system of connections between individuals that have developed in the process of their interaction with each other in the conditions of a given society. Social relations develop between people included in various social groups. Man cannot exist in isolation. In his activities he must take into account the interests of other people. So, to achieve success at work, it is not enough to be a good specialist. It is necessary to be able to build the right relationships with both bosses and colleagues. All human actions are derivatives of social relations, which include two levels: the social level (interaction of people through various social groups) and the psychological level (direct interpersonal relationships).
A situation is possible when, despite favorable conditions, the process of personal development is suspended, since the person himself does not make any effort to do so. For the formation of personality, a person’s desire for self-improvement is necessary. Every person has enormous potential, which can only be revealed if a person sets goals for himself and makes attempts to achieve them.
A person’s abilities play an important role in the development of personality. Abilities are the individual mental qualities of a person that allow him to successfully acquire knowledge, skills and abilities. The wider a person’s range of interests, the easier it is to identify his true abilities. There are often cases when parents force a child to engage in some type of activity (mathematics, sports), but he has abilities in a completely different area (for example, in literature and art).
A clearly expressed ability is called talent. Ability and talent are innate qualities. But if they are not developed, they may fade away. Talent needs to be recognized in a person in time. This is the task of parents, schools, and other public institutions. The development of talent largely depends on the person himself. We call a talented person who constantly develops his abilities and achieves high results in his activities a genius. All brilliant people who left their mark on history were individuals.
But not only talents and geniuses become individuals. Personality is the result of the formation of an individual, the development of his abilities, and the accumulation of experience. A person is characterized by developed self-awareness, a strong position in life, the ability to make decisions and the ability to take responsibility for one’s actions. She always has her own point of view on certain problems and in some cases can oppose herself to society. A person is distinguished by developed willpower, the ability to force himself to act as necessary in a given situation.
Personality formation occurs during socialization. Socialization is the process of mastering social roles, acquiring social statuses and accumulating social experience. The process of socialization begins with a person’s birth and continues throughout his life.
The human life cycle consists of certain age stages: childhood, adolescence, maturity and old age. The age boundaries of these stages are quite blurred. Nevertheless, there are signs by which one can distinguish a child from a youth or a mature person from an old man. Depending on age, stages of socialization are also distinguished. The period of childhood and adolescence constitutes initial socialization, the period of maturity and old age constitutes continued socialization. In the process of socialization, a person is influenced by parents, school, friends (at the stage of initial socialization), and then by college, the army, work, and the state (at the stage of continued socialization).
Education plays an important role in socialization—instilling in a person the values and ideals common in society. Education, as noted above, is a process of purposeful influence on a person to develop certain qualities in him. But there is another side to education, namely, the spontaneous assimilation of rules of behavior. In the first case, education is carried out by parents, school, and university. In the second, the child perceives patterns of behavior, imitating parents, older comrades, idols of cinema, pop, and sports. Purposeful education is always associated with the task of forming a set of positive qualities in a child. Negative patterns of behavior can also be spontaneously absorbed.
In upbringing, purposeful and spontaneous can correspond to each other, or they can come into conflict, for example, when parents constantly tell their child about the dangers of smoking, but they themselves smoke. Therefore, the upbringing process requires responsibility and self-control on the part of parents.
But education does not end when a person grows up. The process of learning norms of behavior continues throughout life. Only its direction changes. If in childhood a person was raised by those around him, then with age he influences himself, forcing him to perform certain actions. This process is called self-education.
Self-education is a property of a developed personality. It requires willpower and the desire for better results. Dissatisfaction with the achieved position, efforts to move forward, a state of constant search are signs indicating the status of an individual. A society consisting of bright personalities develops more dynamically and moves faster along the path of social progress.
Questions and tasks
1. What is the difference between the concepts “person”, “individual”, “personality”?
2. What is social activity? What are its manifestations?
3. Describe the concepts of normative and modal personality. What is their relationship? Give examples.
4. What factors influence the formation of personality?
5. What role do abilities and talent play in the development of personality?
6. What is socialization? What are its stages? What factors influence the socialization process?
7. What role does education play in the development of personality? What is the relationship between purposeful and spontaneous education?
8. What is the importance of self-education? Are you involved in your own education?
9. Read the statement by G.V. Plekhanov.
“A great man is great because he has characteristics that make him most capable of serving the great social needs of his time... A great man is precisely a beginner because he sees further than others and wants stronger than others. He solves scientific problems put on the agenda by the previous course of mental development of society; it indicates new social needs created by the previous development of social relations; he takes upon himself the initiative to satisfy these needs.”
What characteristics of a great man does he highlight?
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2.6. Man, individual, personality
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Personality traits
The main feature of character in the personality structure is its certainty. But this does not mean dominance of one trait. Several traits, contradicting or not contradicting each other, can dominate a character. Character can lose its definition in the absence of clearly defined traits. The system of moral values and beliefs of an individual is also a leading and determining factor in the formation of character traits. They establish the long-term direction of individual behavior.
The character traits of an individual are inextricably linked with his stable and deep interests. The lack of integrity, self-sufficiency and independence of the individual is closely related to the instability and superficiality of the individual’s interests. And, conversely, a person’s integrity and purposefulness and perseverance directly depend on the content and depth of his interests. However, similarity of interests does not yet imply similarity of characteristic personality traits. For example, among scientists you can meet both cheerful and sad people, both good and evil.
To understand the characteristics of a person’s character, one should also pay attention to his affections and leisure time. This can reveal new facets and characteristics of character. It is also important to pay attention to the compliance of a person’s actions with his established goals, because an individual is characterized not only by actions, but also by how exactly he produces them. The direction of activity and the actions themselves form the dominant spiritual or material needs and interests of the individual. Therefore, character should be understood only as the unity of the image of actions and their direction. It is on the combination of personality traits and his properties that a person’s real achievements depend, and not on the presence of mental capabilities.
Temperament and personality
The relationship between character and personality is also determined by the individual’s temperament, abilities and other aspects. And the concepts of temperament and personality form its structure. Character is a set of qualitative properties of an individual that determine his actions, manifested in relation to other people, actions, and things. Whereas temperament is a set of mental properties of an individual that influence his behavioral reactions. The nervous system is responsible for the manifestation of temperament. Character is also inextricably linked with the individual’s psyche, but its traits develop throughout life under the influence of the external environment. And temperament is an innate parameter that cannot be changed, you can only restrain its negative manifestations.
The prerequisite for character is temperament. Temperament and character in the personality structure are closely interrelated with each other, but at the same time they are different from each other.
Temperament embodies mental differences between people. It varies in depth and strength of manifestations of emotions, activity of actions, impressionability and other individual, stable, dynamic characteristics of the psyche.
We can conclude that temperament is the innate foundation and basis on which the personality is formed as a member of society. Therefore, the most stable and permanent personality traits are temperament. It manifests itself equally in any activity, regardless of its focus or content. Remains unchanged in adulthood.
So, temperament is the personal characteristics of an individual, which determine the dynamism of his behavior and mental processes. Those. The concept of temperament characterizes the pace, intensity, duration of mental processes, external behavioral reaction (activity, slowness), but not conviction in views and interests. It also does not determine the value of an individual and does not determine its potential.
There are three important components of temperament that relate to the general mobility (activity) of a person, his emotionality and motor skills. In turn, each of the components has a rather complex structure and is distinguished by various forms of psychological manifestation.
The essence of activity lies in the individual’s desire for self-expression and transformation of the external component of reality. At the same time, the very direction, the quality of implementation of these trends is determined precisely by the characterological characteristics of the individual and not only. The degree of such activity can range from lethargy to the highest manifestation of mobility - constant rise.
The emotional component of a person’s temperament is a set of properties that characterize the characteristics of the course of various feelings and moods. This component is the most complex in its structure compared to the others. Its main characteristics are lability, impressionability and impulsiveness. Emotional lability is the speed with which one emotional state is replaced by another or ceases. Sensibility is understood as the subject’s susceptibility to emotional influences. Impulsivity is the speed with which emotion turns into the motivating reason and force of actions and deeds without first thinking them through and making a conscious decision to carry them out.
The character and temperament of a person are inextricably linked. The dominance of one type of temperament can help determine the character of subjects as a whole.
Distinctive personality traits
The life path of each person, the conditions of his development and activity are unique. Therefore, each person has a unique set of psychophysical characteristics unique to him [1]:
· mental states (activity or passivity; inspiration or apathy; mobility or lack of will);
· mental properties-qualities (temperament; abilities; character; orientation);
· mental formations (intelligence; morality; aesthetics; will; determination, etc.).
The totality of mental and physical characteristics inherited and developed by a person, which distinguish him from other people, determines his individuality. Individuality is the characteristics of a person that distinguish him from other people. This is not only the unique originality of a person’s internal psychological functions (peculiarities of memory, imagination, attention, etc.), but also the characteristics of relationships and reactions to certain life phenomena, the originality of his feelings, the originality of interests and hobbies (what he loves, what hates, what he is indifferent to, etc.).
At the same time, a person is a member of society, occupies a certain position in it and is connected with it in various relationships. In the process of his relationship to society, to work, to other people, to himself, a person reveals and forms his individuality and is perceived by society as a person.
A person is a specific person, a bearer of a certain individuality and a holder of a certain social position (status) in society. The internal maturity of a person is manifested in a person’s actions, in his actions and behavior.
Personality is a public, social concept; it is a unique product of communication and interaction between people. The essence of a person is not her hairstyle, not her blood, but her social quality.
You can become a person only in relation to the world, to what is around you, and it is absolutely impossible if you are indifferent to all this. Not every emotional movement of our personality is of public interest.
But even in a group, an individual tries to preserve his individuality. Any loss or limitation of individuality causes protest. What then makes an individual join a team? There are two motives here: the material side and the need for communication. The ability to manage one’s behavior is determined by the degree of self-awareness of an individual, which is not only individual, but social and historical. Therefore, in order to understand a person as a person, it is necessary to fully know his social environment, the picture and nature of his relationships with the real world. This picture is formed in various social groups: in the family, among friends, among work and study colleagues, etc.
The strength and weakness of an individual are relative. They are determined, on the one hand, by a person’s position among other people, and on the other, by the degree of self-knowledge. A personality is free and strong if it recognizes itself as an individual. But such awareness is not only individual, it is also social and historical. Only when these conditions are met do we have a truly morally free person in a free society.
Labor plays a huge role in the formation of personality. It is in direct activity that a person is formed as a personality. Positive individual personality traits enrich the entire team and strengthen social ties. The erasure of individuality is tantamount to the loss of creativity in the work collective.
A leader must be able to observe a person’s behavior in specific situations: what pleases him more - personal well-being or general achievements;
whether he easily succumbs to temptation or knows how to restrain himself;
chickened out or showed courage in difficult times;
is he modest and self-critical or arrogant and so on.
The answers to these questions will help you find out the inner content of a person, identify him as an individual and understand him as a person. A special place in this series has the test of a person by power. However, the fact of a person’s behavior in a specific situation does not yet explain the reasons for the behavior. The fact of behavior is a consequence. It is important to find the reason for such behavior, to identify what significance these events have for the individual: do they inspire or suppress a person, how much do they meet his needs and interests.
Discovering the personal meaning and reasons for a particular action can give a true understanding of the person himself.
Seeing each employee as a person, individuality and personality is the very first condition for choosing the necessary forms and methods of influencing subordinates. The ability to work individually with people, take into account their natural and personal characteristics, create conditions for the manifestation of abilities and talents - all this is the key to a leader’s successful work with people
Personality structure.
Personality consists of a collection of individual elements, the close interconnection and interdependence of which constitutes its first property. The second characteristic of personality is active activity aimed at understanding and transforming the world around us. The third property is the stability of behavior, which allows it to be fairly reliably predicted and based on this to be managed.
The first element that forms a personality can be considered its orientation, which creates a stable orientation of a person’s behavior regardless of the specific situation, determines his goals and motives. Direction is determined by such factors as interests, aspirations, inclinations, and ideals.
There are three types of personality orientation: interaction-oriented, task-oriented, and self-oriented, which are simultaneously present to one degree or another in most people. However, in order to better understand their essence, you need to get to know them in their “pure” form. A focus on interaction, or communication, means that a person strives to cooperate with colleagues, maintain good relationships with them, jointly solve specific problems, regardless of the purpose of the activity and his own role in it, that is, simply work in the company.
The orientation of an individual towards a task, otherwise called business, presupposes that a person places emphasis on achieving a goal, for example, successfully solving a problem facing him, obtaining real results, mastering new knowledge and skills, proving that he is right, significant, etc. In this case, what a person does is more important than how he does it. Finally, self-direction, or personal focus, consists of a person’s desire to primarily solve his own problems, achieve personal well-being, prestige and, if possible, do this at the expense of others. In a team, such individuals give the appearance of work, and in the case of individual activity they try to find a replacement for themselves. Knowing the orientation of the personality of the members of the organization, determined using special tests, helps to find the right approach to people and greatly facilitates the process of managing their activities.
The second element of the employee’s personality structure is abilities, that is, inclinations, inclinations for any type of activity.
The degree of realization of special abilities depends mainly on two circumstances: the education received and the intelligence given by nature, for the development of which education is a certain basis. In turn, the position for which a person can apply in the management hierarchy largely depends on intelligence and the nature of thinking. Persons occupying primary positions, for example, timekeepers, foremen, etc., who plan their work for a period of no more than two months, only need to have so-called concrete sensory thinking, which is carried out only when there is a corresponding object in front of their eyes. This mindset comes from education or training ranging from a few days to two years.
People holding lower management positions, such as craftsmen, who require the ability to plan their activities for a period of up to six months, need to have so-called concrete-imaginative thinking. It makes it possible to perform work on the basis of a previously obtained idea of an object, without constantly holding it before your eyes. To develop such thinking, professional education lasting from two to four years is necessary. For managers of small enterprises and leading specialists of large organizations who need to plan their work at least a year in advance, it is important to have concrete speculative thinking, which makes it possible to regulate the activities of fairly complex structures, the elements of which are in the most diverse relationships with each other. This level of thinking is ensured by higher education, certain practical knowledge and experience
Types of temperament.
Having characterized the main types of temperament, the following types of temperament can be distinguished: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic and melancholic.
Sanguine is one of the main types of temperament. Reliable in any work, except monotonous, monotonous and slow. He likes lively, active work that requires ingenuity and resourcefulness. He is purposeful and therefore persistently and patiently achieves his goal. It works relatively quickly and works rhythmically. Failures and mistakes do not upset him. Prefers independence and freedom of action.
In relationships with a sanguine person, one should not overuse lengthy teachings and careful explanations of tasks. The most effective way is to have a calm and correct attitude towards him.
Choleric is the main type of temperament. Shows excessive haste, not listening to the explanation, asks questions, and tries to grasp everything “on the fly.” He can be very diligent and enthusiastic in his work, but after making several mistakes and encountering obstacles, he may “cool down.” When performing important tasks, he may experience increased tension and a heightened sense of responsibility. Therefore, it is necessary to encourage and strengthen confidence in success, avoiding excessive self-confidence
A choleric person is most productive in cyclical work, when maximum stress is replaced by a calmer period. Workability is fast, but the rhythm of work is uneven.
A pronounced choleric person is characterized by poor self-control. And here calm and restraint “cool” the choleric person. His uneven behavior must be subjected to correct but strict critical assessment.
Let's consider another of the main types of temperament - phlegmatic . The most suitable work is one in which there are no fast, varied movements, the pace of work is average
Strengths: perseverance, endurance, ability to maintain significant tension for a long time. It takes a relatively long time to prepare for work in detail and carefully.
Copes most successfully with monotonous, monotonous work and is persistent. In normal circumstances, a phlegmatic person needs to be hurried, but hurried, not reproaching him for slowness, but encouraging and helping.
In case of omissions on the part of the phlegmatic person, the leader may demand strictly and even harshly.
Melancholic is the last of the main types of temperaments. Similar to a phlegmatic person, but he is distinguished by slowness, although this hides great emotionality, excitability and impressionability. Works successfully in a calm and safe environment that does not require quick, responsible actions. It is developed relatively slowly, the rhythm of work does not last long, with “attenuation”. May be distracted in thoughts or by minor external stimuli, making mistakes.
Works successfully alone, without frequent contacts. The mood is of great importance to him. Therefore, the manager and fellow workers must be especially attentive to provide him with timely support and assistance. Only by feeling such help does a melancholic person work successfully.
Character types
The basis for the classification of the character system is established acts of human behavior, the stereotypes of which are well studied.
The character system is international. This means that all types of characters, without exception, occur in every nation and every nationality.
There are no bad and no good characters. All characters have their shortcomings and their advantages. As a rule, the brighter and more attractive the merits of a certain character, the deeper and more serious his shortcomings turn out to be. For example, a hyperthymic type of character is characterized by the following criteria - cheerful, energetic, with infectious enthusiasm, creates a wonderful microclimate around itself. However, due to the rapid change of his interests, he is not able to bring any serious undertaking to completion.
Or a sensitive type of character - easily psychologically vulnerable, it seems to him that he is somehow different, does everything somehow wrong and redoes the work several times, “polishing” it to an ideal shine - all his life he improves himself, develops exceptional perseverance and hard work .
There are no male or female character systems. All characters are equally characteristic of both men and women, although the behavior of men and women of the same character is different. (In a male team, a woman may behave differently than in a female group.)
Characterizing systems of characters, we list several types of characters.
1. Hysterical character (ostentatious, demonstrative). A person with such a character tries to attract attention by any means. To gain attention, he spares neither effort nor time. His motto: “All attention to me.” A significant part of social, scientific and technological progress rests on the shoulders of hysterics. The main disadvantage of a hysteroid is a decline in performance for some time due to the public defeat of his pride. Hysteria cannot be reduced to hysteria, which manifests itself in many other types of characters.
2. Unstable character. A person with such a character makes serious, grandiose plans, but they are often not fulfilled. He has a deep need for external strict control of behavior. In other words, he needs a tough, authoritative “hand” that would regulate his work and rest schedule. A person with such a character loves risky work. He is unpretentious and does not require comfort. He is the one who enjoys going on expeditions and construction sites. An unstable personality type refuses leadership, preferring executive functions. His motto: “all for Hyper” means above, “time” means oneself. Intimate - in oneself, hyperthymic - beyond oneself. If you look at such a person from the outside, it seems that he can move mountains. He is distinguished by inexhaustible energy and infectious enthusiasm. His motto: “everything can be done.” It is difficult to catch him in a sad state - he is always joking and laughing. Almost does not react to small insults, sidelong glances, subtle hints. However, if insults are expressed directly to his face, he “boils”, becomes indignant for 20-30 minutes very violently, and an hour later he hugs the offender. He's not vindictive. Such a person has an independent character, he does not need anyone's care. He evaluates himself and is confident in the correctness of his assessment. Unlike the hysteroid (who expects public praise for a job well done), the hypertim is always satisfied with his work, without expecting anyone's assessment. This is a stubborn nature, it is difficult to convince him. Its main drawback is the rapid change of interests.
5. Cycloidal character. Basically, this type of character is the same as hyperthymia. However, the hyperthymic basis of this type of character is interrupted by the cyclical nature of psychological activity. Recession phases are often called “black weeks.”
6. Labile character. Similar to hyperthymic. However, the downturns here are not cyclical, but calendar-based. Such declines are often called a trance state; they are formed at random times for weakly motivated reasons. A person with a labile character divides the team into friends and enemies. (There are only extremes - there is no middle.) They say that if a friend is labile, you are lucky - he will not spare anything for his friend. With “enemies” he is cold, harsh, picky. He tries to get rid of them as quickly as possible. His motto is “friends” and “enemies.”
7. Sensitive character. Sensual character type. Impressionability is highly developed. Therefore, a person builds a “crystal” model of everything that happens, and any logic of such a model subsequently causes great psychological stress and suffering. It seems to him that he is not like everyone else. He places very high demands on himself and others and often looks like a “black sheep” because of this. He is very vulnerable, his psyche is poorly protected. He is very picky in choosing friends and does not like intense communication.
8. Psychological-asthetic character. It is formed on a weak (astheno) psyche (phlegmatic-melancholic). All his reactions have a small amplitude. It is difficult to anger him, he has amazing tenacity. He is talented in small, painstaking work. His motto: “no one but me.” Disadvantages of a psychological-asthetic nature - complete indecision, fear of responsibility, introspection without limitation.
9. Schizoid character. Secretive. Has nothing to do with schizophrenia. Has remarkable organizational skills. Assumes the right to command others early (in childhood). His motto: “only power.”
10. Epileptoid character. "Insensitive." It has nothing to do with the disease epilepsy. The actions of such a person often border on cruelty. She has remarkable creative abilities and constantly develops her intellect. He heads mostly creative organizations. Excellent student. He is responsible for many discoveries. The motto of an epileptoid is: “I can do anything.”
Personality types
Today in the specific literature there are many criteria by which personality types are determined.
The typology proposed by E. Kretschmer is now the most popular. It consists of dividing people into three groups depending on their physique.
Picnic people are people who tend to be overweight or slightly overweight, short in stature, but with a large head, wide face and short neck. Their character type corresponds to cyclothymics. They are emotional, sociable, and easily adapt to a variety of conditions.
Athletic people are tall and broad-shouldered people, with well-developed muscles, a resilient skeleton and a powerful chest. They correspond to the ixothymic type of character. These people are powerful and quite practical, calm and unimpressive. Ixothymic people are restrained in their gestures and facial expressions and do not adapt well to changes.
Asthenic people are people who are prone to thinness, their muscles are poorly developed, their chest is flat, their arms and legs are long, and they have an elongated face. Corresponds to the schizothymic character type. Such people are very serious and prone to stubbornness, and have difficulty adapting to change. Characterized by isolation.
K.G. Jung developed a different typology. It is based on the predominant functions of the psyche (thinking, intuition). His classification divides subjects into introverts and extroverts depending on the dominance of the external or internal world.
An extrovert is characterized by directness and openness. Such a person is extremely sociable, active and has many friends, comrades and just acquaintances. Extroverts love to travel and get everything out of life. An extrovert often becomes the initiator of parties; in companies, he becomes their soul. In ordinary life, he focuses only on circumstances, and not on the subjective opinion of others.
An introvert, on the contrary, is characterized by isolation and turning inward. Such a person isolates himself from the environment and carefully analyzes all events. An introvert has a hard time making contact with people, so he has few friends and acquaintances. Introverts prefer solitude to noisy companies. These people have an increased degree of anxiety.
There is also a typology based on the relationship between character and temperament, which divides people into 4 psychotypes.
A choleric person is a rather impetuous, fast, passionate and at the same time unbalanced person. Such people are subject to sudden mood swings and emotional outbursts. Cholerics do not have a balance of nervous processes, so they quickly become exhausted, thoughtlessly wasting their strength.
Phlegmatic people are distinguished by equanimity, unhurriedness, stability of moods and aspirations. Outwardly, they practically do not show emotions and feelings. Such people are quite persistent and persistent in their work, while always remaining balanced and calm. The phlegmatic person compensates for his slowness in work with diligence.
A melancholic person is a very vulnerable person, prone to stable experiences of various events. A melancholic person reacts sharply to any external factors or manifestations. Such people are very impressionable.
A sanguine person is a mobile, active person with a lively character. He is subject to frequent changes of impressions and is characterized by rapid reactions to any events. We can easily relate to the failures or troubles that befell him. When a sanguine person is interested in his work, he will be quite productive.
Also, K. Leonhard identified 12 types, often found in people with neuroses, accentuated characters. And E. Fromm described three social types of characters.
Psychological character of personality
Everyone has long known that significant changes occur in the psychological character of an individual in the process of its development and life activity. Such changes are subject to typical (natural) and atypical (individual) trends.
Typical trends include changes that occur in psychological character as a person grows older. This happens because the older an individual becomes, the faster he gets rid of childish manifestations in character, which distinguish childish behavior from adult behavior. Childhood personality traits include capriciousness, tearfulness, fears, and irresponsibility. Adult traits that come with age include tolerance, life experience, rationality, wisdom, prudence, etc.
As an individual moves along the path of life and gains life experience, changes occur in their views on events, and their attitudes towards them change. Which together also influences the final formation of character. Therefore, there are certain differences between people of different age groups.
For example, people between the ages of approximately 30 and 40 live mainly in the future; they live in ideas and plans. All their thoughts, their activities are aimed at realizing the future. And people who have reached 50 years of age have approached the point where their present life meets simultaneously with their past life and their future. And therefore, their character is modified in such a way as to correspond to the present. This is the age when people completely say goodbye to their dreams, but are not yet ready to be nostalgic for the years they have lived. People who have passed the 60-year mark practically no longer think about the future; they are much more concerned about the present, and they have memories of the past. Also, due to physical ailments, the previously taken pace and rhythm of life is no longer available to them. This leads to the appearance of such character traits as slowness, measuredness, and tranquility.
Atypical, specific tendencies are directly related to events experienced by a person, i.e. conditioned by past life.
As a rule, character traits that are similar to existing ones are consolidated much faster and appear much faster.
You should always remember that character is not an immutable quantity; it is formed throughout a person’s entire life cycle.
How to write a term paper on speech therapy
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These guidelines are compiled to help students gain an understanding of the content and structure of coursework in speech therapy.
Logopedia of pedagogical science that studies anomalies of speech development with normal hearing, explores the manifestations, nature and mechanisms of speech disorders, develops the scientific basis for overcoming and preventing them means of special training and education.
The subject of speech therapy as a science is speech disorders and the process of training and education of persons with speech disorders.
The object of study is a person suffering from a speech disorder.
The main task of speech therapy as a science is the study, prevention and elimination of various types of speech disorders.
Coursework in speech therapy is a student's scientific and experimental research. This type of educational activity, provided for by the educational and professional program and curriculum, contributes to the acquisition of skills in working with literature, analyzing and summarizing literary sources in order to determine the range of insufficiently studied problems, determining the content and methods of experimental research, processing skills and qualitative analysis of the results obtained. The need to complete coursework in speech therapy is due to the updating of knowledge concerning the content, organization, principles, methods and techniques of speech therapy work.
As a rule, during their studies, students must write two term papers - theoretical and practical.
The first course work should be devoted to the analysis and synthesis of general and specialized literature on the chosen topic. Based on this analysis, it is necessary to justify and develop a method of ascertaining (diagnostic) experiment.
In the second course work, it is necessary to provide an analysis of the results obtained during the ascertaining experiment, as well as determine the directions and content of speech therapy work, and select adequate methods and techniques of correction.
So, let’s present the general requirements for the content and design of coursework in speech therapy.
The initial and most important stage of working on a course project is the choice of a topic, which is either proposed by the supervisor or chosen by the student independently from a list of topics that are consistent with the areas of scientific research of the department.
Each topic can be modified, considered in different aspects, but taking into account a theoretical and practical approach. Having chosen a topic, the student needs to think through in detail its specific content, areas of work, practical material, etc., which should be reflected both in the formulation of the topic and in the further construction of the study. It should be recalled that the chosen topic may not only have a purely theoretical orientation, for example: “Dysarthria. Characteristics of the defect”, “Classification of dysgraphia”, but also take into account the practical significance of the problem under consideration, for example: “Speech therapy work on speech correction for dysarthria”. It should also be taken into account that when formulating a topic, excessive detail should be avoided, for example: “Formation of prosodic components of speech in preschoolers of the sixth year of life attending a preschool institution for children with severe speech impairments.”
The course work includes such mandatory parts as: introduction, three chapters, conclusion, bibliography and appendix.
The text of the term paper begins with the title page . An example of its design can be seen here.
Then the content of the work is given, in which the names of chapters, paragraphs, and sections are formulated in strict accordance with the content of the thesis. An example of its design can be seen here.
In the text, each subsequent chapter and paragraph begins on a new page. At the end of each chapter, the materials are summarized and conclusions are formulated.
The introduction reveals the relevance of the problem under consideration in general and the topic being studied in particular; the problem, subject, object, and purpose of the study are defined. In accordance with the goal and hypothesis, objectives and a set of research methods aimed at achieving the objectives must be defined.
The relevance of the topic lies in reflecting the current level of pedagogical science and practice, meeting the requirements of novelty and usefulness.
When defining the research problem, it is important to indicate what practical tasks it will help to implement in training and educating people with speech pathology.
The object of research is understood as certain aspects of pedagogical reality, perceived through a system of theoretical and practical knowledge. The ultimate goal of any research is to improve this object.
The subject of research is some part, property, element of an object, i.e. the subject of research always indicates a specific aspect of the object that is to be studied and about which the researcher wants to gain new knowledge. An object is a part of an object.
You can give an example of the formulation of the object, subject and problem of research:
– The object of the study is the speech activity of preschool children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.
– The subject of the study is the features of intonation speech of children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.
– The research problem is to determine effective directions for speech therapy work on the formation of intonation expressiveness of speech in the system of correctional intervention.
The purpose of the study contributes to the specification of the object being studied. The goal of any research is to solve a specific problem. The goal is specified in tasks taking into account the subject of research.
The research objectives are formulated in a certain sequence, which determines the logic of the research. The research objectives are set on the basis of a theoretical analysis of the problem and an assessment of the state of its solution in practice.
The first chapter is an analysis of literary sources, which examines the state of this problem in historical and modern aspects, and presents the most important theoretical principles that formed the basis of the study.
When writing the first chapter, you should pay attention to the fact that the text of the course work must be written in a scientific style. When presenting scientific material, it is necessary to comply with the following requirements:
– Specificity – a review of only those sources that are necessary to disclose only a given topic or solve only a given problem;
– Clarity – which is characterized by semantic coherence and integrity of individual parts of the text;
– Logicality – which provides for a certain structure of presentation of the material;
– Reasoning – evidence of thoughts (why this and not otherwise);
– Precision of wording, excluding ambiguous interpretation of the authors’ statements.
A literary review of the state of the problem being studied should not be reduced to a consistent presentation of literary sources. It should present a generalized description of the literature: highlight the main directions (currents, concepts, points of view), analyze in detail and evaluate the most fundamental works of representatives of these directions.
When writing a work, the student must correctly use literary materials, make references to the authors and sources from which the results of scientific research are borrowed. Failure to provide required references will reduce your coursework grade.
As a rule, in coursework on speech therapy, references to literary sources are formatted as follows: the number of the cited source in the general list of references is placed in square brackets. For example: General speech underdevelopment is a speech pathology in which there is a persistent lag in the formation of all components of the language system: phonetics, vocabulary and grammar [17].
When using quotations, in square brackets, in addition to indicating the source number, the page number from which this excerpt is taken is indicated, for example: Speech rhythm is based on a physiological and intellectual basis, since, firstly, it is directly related to the rhythm of breathing. Secondly, being an element that performs a communicative function, “correlates with meaning, i.e. controlled intellectually” [23, P.40].
However, course work should not be of a purely abstract nature, so you should not abuse the unreasonable abundance of citations. Quoting should be logically justified, convincing and used only when really necessary.
In the second chapter , devoted to experimental research, the organization should be described and the program of the ascertaining experiment should be presented. The survey methodology, as a rule, consists of a description of several series of tasks, with detailed instructions, visual and lexical material, the procedure for completing tasks by experiment participants, and scoring criteria. This chapter also provides a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the results obtained.
When analyzing the results of an experiment, it is necessary to use a scoring system. Examples of various criteria for quantitative and qualitative assessment are presented in the following works:
– Glukhov V.P. Formation of coherent speech in preschool children with general speech underdevelopment. - M.: Arkti, 2002. - 144 p.
– Fotekova T.A. Test methodology for diagnosing oral speech of primary schoolchildren. - M.: Arkti, 2000. - 56 p.
– Levchenko I.Yu. Pathopsychology: Theory and practice. - M.: Academy, 2000. - 232 p.
In order to visually present the results obtained during the experimental study, it is recommended to use tables, graphs, diagrams, etc. Histograms can be used in a variety of ways - columnar, cylindrical, planar, volumetric, etc. An example of the design of tables, figures, and histograms can be found here.
The third chapter provides a rationale for the proposed methods and techniques and reveals the content of the main stages of correctional work.
The conclusion contains a summary of the material presented and the main conclusions formulated by the author.
The bibliography must contain at least 25 sources. The list includes bibliographic information about the sources used in preparing the work. An example of its design can be seen here.
In the application you can present bulky tables or illustrations, examination protocols, observation records, products of activity (drawings, written works of children), notes from speech therapy classes, etc.
The volume of one course work must be at least 30 pages of typewritten text.
In general, coursework in speech therapy is the basis for a future thesis, in which the study of the begun problem can be continued, but from the standpoint of a different approach or a comparative analysis of the disorders being studied in different age categories of people with different types of speech disorders.
The content and format of theses in speech therapy can be found here.
Literature:
1. How to write a term paper on speech therapy: Methodological recommendations. Educational and methodological manual / Comp. Artemova E.E., Tishina L.A. / Ed. Orlova O.S. – M.: MGOPU, 2008. – 35 p.
2. Research work of students in the system of higher professional pedagogical education (specialty 031800 - Speech therapy). Methodological recommendations for completing the thesis / Compiled by. L.V. Lopatina, V.I. Lipakova, G.G. Golubeva. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A. I. Herzen, 2002. - 140 p.
Social character of personality
Individuals of any society, despite their individual personal characteristics and differences, have common psychological manifestations and properties, and therefore act as ordinary representatives of a given society.
The social character of a person is a general way of adapting a person to the influence of society. It is created by religion, culture, education system and family upbringing. It should also be taken into account that even in a family, a child receives an upbringing that is approved in a given society and corresponds to the culture, which is considered normal, ordinary and natural.
According to E. Fromm, social character means the result of a person’s adaptation to a particular way of organizing society, to the culture in which he is brought up. He believes that none of the known developed societies in the world will allow the individual to fully realize himself. From this it turns out that the individual from birth is in conflict with society. Therefore, we can conclude that the social character of an individual is a kind of mechanism that allows an individual to exist freely and with impunity in any society.
The process of adaptation of an individual in society occurs with a distortion of the character of the individual himself and his personality, to the detriment of it. According to Fromm, social character is a kind of defense, an individual’s response to a situation that causes frustration in the social environment, which does not allow the individual to freely express himself and fully develop, placing him obviously within limits and limitations. In society, a person will not be able to fully develop the inclinations and capabilities inherent in him by nature. As Fromm believed, social character is instilled in the individual and has a stabilizing character. From the moment an individual begins to have a social character, he becomes completely safe for the society in which he lives. Fromm identified several options of this nature.
