An integral part of modern social life are social conflicts in all their diversity. We encounter examples of conflicts everywhere, from small quarrels to international confrontations. The consequence of one of these confrontations - Islamic fundamentalism - is considered on the scale of one of the largest world problems, bordering on the threat of World War III.
However, research in the field of the specifics of conflict as a socio-psychological phenomenon has shown that this is a sufficiently broad and complex concept to be assessed unambiguously from a destructive point of view.
Concept of conflict
The most common in scientific knowledge are two approaches regarding the nature of the conflict (Antsupov A. Ya.). The first defines conflict as a clash of parties, opinions or forces; the second – as a collision of opposing positions, goals, interests and views of the subjects of interaction. Thus, in the first case, examples of conflicts of broader significance are considered, occurring in both living and inanimate nature. In the second case, the circle of participants in the conflict is limited to a group of people. Moreover, any conflict includes certain lines of interaction between subjects (or groups of subjects), which develop into confrontation.
Ways to resolve interpersonal conflicts
Resolution of any conflict is possible thanks to one of the following strategies of the participants:
- Evasion and avoidance. The method presupposes the absence of both concessions and insistence on being right. Doesn't help resolve the situation well.
- Aggressive interpersonal methods of conflict resolution are coercive and confrontational. When used, the defeated party will feel dissatisfied after the conflict subsides.
- Smoothing and compliance. In such a situation, it is important for partners to preserve the existing relationship to the detriment of a real solution to the problem.
- Compromise or cooperation. This is the most optimal option for interaction, in which the parties try to find a way out through mutual concessions.
- The solution to the problem is an ideal scenario that does not involve sacrifices on the part of all participants. Rarely occurs in real life.
Structure and specificity of the conflict
L. Coser is considered the founder of the conflict paradigm in general in the humanities. One of the strengths of his theory is the recognition of the fact that there are examples of conflicts of positive functional significance. In other words, Coser argued that conflict is not always a destructive phenomenon; there are cases when it is a necessary condition for creating internal connections of a particular system or a condition for maintaining social unity.
The structure of a conflict is formed by its participants (opponents, warring parties) and their actions, the subject, conditions/situation of the conflict (for example, a crush on public transport) and its outcome. The subject of the conflict, as a rule, is closely related to the needs of the parties involved, for the satisfaction of which the struggle takes place. Generally speaking, they can be combined into three large groups: material, social (status-role) and spiritual. Dissatisfaction with certain needs that are significant for an individual (group) can be considered as a cause of conflicts.
Features of interpersonal conflicts
You can distinguish interpersonal conflict from other types of contradictions by the following characteristic features:
- The concept of interpersonal conflict applies to the direct interaction of two or more individuals based on conflict or personal motives.
- Various forms of interpersonal conflict can arise due to the entire range of known causes, from specific to general.
- Such a confrontation is considered a kind of test of character, temperament, will and other individual mental characteristics.
- This form of communication is highly emotional and covers all areas of relationships.
- Conflicts can affect the interests of not only the warring parties, but also their environment.
Stages of development of interpersonal conflict
With any constructive or destructive confrontation, a specific specific structure of interpersonal conflict is observed. It consists of the following stages:
- Pre-conflict, that is, the state of affairs the day before.
- A plot or an incident. This is the first clash between the parties on a convenient occasion that has arisen.
- Increase or escalation of the conflict. It consists of a series of actions and responses by the parties.
- The culmination or highest point of passion in an interaction. It leads to the fact that the parties realize the pointlessness of carrying out hostile actions and the need to find a way out of the current situation.
- Completion. This may be due to the parties’ search for a solution to the crisis or other reasons.
- Post-conflict.
Behavior in interpersonal conflict
During the active stage of confrontation, opponents can choose acceptable methods of behavior in an interpersonal conflict. It could be:
- Violence. The weaker side, emotionally or physically, submits to the opponent who is stronger than it.
- Disconnection. The parties stop communicating and the conflict dies down until the next clash.
- Negotiations and reconciliation. This can be either a reasoned adoption of a mutual decision, or the cessation of actions against the opponent by all participants. Then they say that the confrontation subsides on its own.
- Involving a third independent party to take the conflict to a new level.
Examples of conflict typology
As N.V. Grishina notes, in everyday consciousness, examples of conflicts include a fairly wide range of phenomena - from armed conflict and confrontation between certain social groups and up to marital disagreements. It does not matter whether we are talking about a debate in parliament or a struggle of personal desires. In modern science, one can find a huge number of different classifications, but there is no clear differentiation between the concepts of “types” and “kinds” of conflicts. Examples from both groups are more often used as synonyms. Meanwhile, in our opinion, it is more expedient to highlight three main aspects in the typology of conflicts:
- types of conflicts;
- types of conflicts;
- forms of conflicts.
The first aspect seems to be the broadest in scope. Each type may include several types of conflicts, which, in turn, can occur in one form or another.
Resolution methods
Finding a solution depends on the type of conflict, the reasons for its occurrence, and the size of the group.
Identify the main resolution methods:
- offensive;
- retreat;
- defense;
- evasion.
When an offensive strategy , changes that are undesirable for the opponent are expected to occur.
The retreat method allows you to avoid confrontation without unnecessary losses, while providing the enemy with some concessions. When avoiding, there is a conscious failure to enter into conflict.
When defending, there is only active opposition and protection from directed aggression.
The methods chosen may be violent . Examples include strikes, deprivation of bonuses, wars, and the use of a “third force.”
With non-violent methods, conflict resolution occurs through negotiations.
With the neutral method, the conflict is resolved by uniting the parties, one of the parties abandoning its position, or eliminating the reasons that led to the confrontation.
Another method is separation of the parties , that is, severing relations, isolation. If this is a conflict between an individual and a work group, then one of the options is transfer to another department or dismissal.
The integral method allows you to find a solution that satisfies the interests of both parties. However, in this case, the conflicting parties will have to reconsider their goals.
Compromise is the ability of both parties to make concessions.
However, it cannot be used in any group confrontation.
What is important here is the desire of both parties to make concessions, slightly reduce or change their demands.
the opponents' attitudes towards each other is important .
Sometimes there may be a fading of the conflict - its temporary cessation while hostility persists . Under certain circumstances, it can flare up again, sometimes with greater force.
Types and types of conflicts
The main types of conflicts include:
- intrapersonal (intrapersonal);
- interpersonal (interpersonal);
- intergroup;
- conflict between the individual and the group.
Thus, the emphasis in this case is on the subjects (participants) of the conflict. In turn, interpersonal, intergroup conflicts, as well as conflict between an individual and a group are examples of social conflicts. The first social conflict, along with intrapersonal and animal conflict, was identified as an independent type by the German sociologist G. Simmel. In some later concepts, intrapersonal conflict is also included in the concept of social, which, however, is a debatable point.
Among the main causes of social conflicts, it is customary to highlight limited resources, differences between people in the value and semantic context, differences in life experience and behavior, limitations of certain capabilities of the human psyche, etc.
Concepts and examples
Intergroup conflict is defined as a clash of interests , disagreements between groups or an individual and a social group.
Most often occurs within organizations. However, larger-scale options are also known - class struggle between countries.
There may also be a clash between the formal and informal groups, when opposing attitudes and goals .
In any team, in addition to the appointed leadership, sooner or later informal groups with their own leader appear. He is often the instigator of clashes, provoking other members of the community to follow him.
Each person, as a rule, is a member of some social group . He accepts her ideas and direction.
In this case, confrontation may arise with another social group when these ideas and goals do not coincide. Differences may relate to working methods, ideology, methods of management, subordination to the leader.
Often there is a conflict between an individual and a group when he categorically disagrees with its requirements, methods of work, moral and other norms.
One example of intergroup conflict is a trade union and the administration of an enterprise , two departments competing with each other. A conflict between an individual and a group is an individual worker who clearly stands out from the team, a “black sheep.”
Indicators of intergroup conflict in this video:
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Intrapersonal conflict
It implies a subjectively experienced mismatch of certain tendencies in a person’s self-awareness (evaluations, attitudes, interests, etc.), interacting with each other in the process of development (Mitina L. M., Kuzmenkova O. V.). In other words, we are talking about a collision of certain motivational formations that cannot be satisfied (realized) at the same time. For example, a person may not like his job, but be afraid to quit because of the prospect of remaining unemployed. A child may feel a desire to skip class and at the same time be afraid of being punished for it, etc.
In turn, this type of conflict can be of the following types (Antsupov A. Ya., Shipilov A. I.):
- motivational (“I want” and “I want”);
- conflict of inadequate self-esteem (“I can” and “I can”);
- role-playing (“must” and “must”);
- conflict of unfulfilled desire (“I want” and “I can”);
- moral (“I want” and “need”);
- adaptive (“need”, “can”).
Thus, this classification identifies three main components of the personal structure that come into conflict with each other: “I want” (want), “I must” (must) and “I am” (can). If we compare this concept with the well-known personality structure developed by Sigmund Freud within the framework of psychoanalysis, we can observe a conflict between the Id (I want), the Ego (I can) and the Super-Ego (I must). Also in this case, it is advisable to recall the transactional analysis of Eric Berne and the three personality positions he identifies: Child (I want), Adult (I can), Parent (I need).
Causes of intergroup conflicts
Causes of intergroup conflicts
are quite diverse and stem from the characteristics of intergroup interactions, i.e., from the interdependence of groups, the reward system used, and status inconsistencies (Fig. 5.7.1.).
Rice. 5.7.1. Causes of intergroup conflicts
Group dependency can be sequential or pooled,
which influences the emergence of conflict in different ways.
Pool dependency
occurs between departments within the same organization and does not imply direct contact between groups. Let's look at an example.
At a furniture manufacturing factory, a conflict situation has arisen between sales representatives and designers of the production department. Sales representatives who work in large furniture stores and communicate directly with customers have experienced a drop in product sales due to customer dissatisfaction with the colors of the fabrics used and the configuration of the furniture supplied. Representatives of the production department believe that they produce high-quality furniture using the labor of professional designers, and sales representatives simply do not know how to work, and it is their fault that sales volumes are declining.
The conflict situation that arose revealed an insufficiently developed system of interaction between production and trading departments, poor consideration of customer wishes, which overall led to a decrease in sales at the factory and a decrease in profits.
Sequential
dependence is determined by the production interdependence of groups on each other. The completion of one group is the beginning of the work of another group. Pool dependence causes fewer conflicts than sequential dependence, due to the fact that it less affects the interests of the participants in group interaction.
Another cause of intergroup conflicts is the structure of the reward system,
which involves building an entire system of rewarding the activities of each group, regardless of the collective result.
This state of affairs causes rivalry, different preferences, a discrepancy in the perception of the goals of the organization, and the significance of the contributions of each group. In some cases, the management of an organization uses this provision to increase the output from groups, that is, it creates the functional
consequences of the conflict (as, for example, in).
Limited resources
as a cause of intergroup conflicts, it assumes that the implementation of the goals of one group while using the same resources infringes on the capabilities of another group. Limited resources quite often lead to the emergence of tense relationships that turn into conflict - both at the level of the individual and the group. People tend to overestimate their personal contribution or the contribution of a group that is significant to them, and therefore any distribution of resources at any level (bonuses, orders, contracts) can lead to rejection of the proposed distribution, infringement of someone’s interests and, as a result, to conflict .
The cause of intergroup conflicts can also be different time horizons,
i.e., different perceptions of the time required to realize goals by each group.
For example, developers of a new product in aircraft engine production think in terms of the 5-6 years they need to create a new product. At the same time, production engineers of the same organization understand the prospect to be 1-2 years, no more. When such differences exist in time horizons
, problems and issues that are critical for one group are not recognized as significant for another, which creates the basis for the emergence of a conflict situation. This situation is strengthened by sequential dependence between groups.
Status mismatch
as a cause of intergroup conflict suggests that groups with one status within an organization may negatively perceive members of other groups with, in their opinion, lower status. The manifestation of snobbery and arrogance among workers in status groups is perceived by others as a threat to their own position. For example, as a result of market analysis, the marketing department of an organization proposes to change the production process of a manufactured product. The production department may perceive the need for such changes as a challenge and a threat to its own status, since the initiative did not come from it, but from another department (in this case, marketing). The conflict situation can be aggravated by the behavior of employees of these departments.
Inadequate perception
that is, different perceptions of the same events by different groups due to existing norms and stereotypes can lead to minor contradictions in a conflict clash.
Interpersonal conflict
This type occurs in case of disagreements and clashes between individuals. Among its features, it can be noted that it proceeds according to the “here and now” principle, can have both objective and subjective reasons, and is also, as a rule, characterized by high emotionality of the parties involved. The interpersonal type can also be divided into separate types of conflicts.
For example, depending on the specifics of the subordination relationship between the participants, interpersonal conflicts can be divided into “vertical”, “horizontal”, and “diagonal” conflicts. In the first case, we are dealing with subordination relationships, for example, manager - employee, teacher - student. The second case occurs when the parties to the conflict occupy equal positions and do not obey each other - work colleagues, spouses, random passers-by, people in line, etc. Diagonal conflicts can arise between opponents who are indirectly subordinate - between the boss service and the duty officer in the unit, between the senior and the junior, etc. (when the participants are in positions of different levels, but do not have a subordinate relationship with each other).
Also, interpersonal conflicts can include such types as family (marital, child-parent, conflict between brothers and sisters), domestic, conflict in an organization (we see an example of organizational conflict whenever a clash occurs in a particular production structure between its subjects within the framework of working interaction), etc.
What are the characteristics of interpersonal conflicts?
This type of confrontation between people is characterized by the following features:
- Participation of two or more individuals.
- An open clash between participants in an interpersonal conflict in a real unit of time.
- Differing personal opinions, views and judgments regarding a certain problem or situation, the interests of individual groups and associations, which disrupt the normal interaction of the parties.
- One of the parties, as a result of a conflict of interests, acts to the detriment of the other. The second participant takes active response actions.
- Complete resolution of the conflict is possible only by finding a compromise that will satisfy all participants in the interaction. The victory of one of the parties will not end the conflict.
Intergroup conflict
Intergroup conflicts usually include clashes between individual representatives of different social groups (large, small and medium), as well as between these groups as a whole. In this case, we can also distinguish such types as conflict in an organization (examples: between employees and management, administration and trade union, students and teachers, etc.), domestic (if the conflict involves several representatives of two or more groups - for example, in communal apartments, in queues, public transport, etc.).
We can also highlight such examples of social conflicts at the intergroup level as interethnic, intercultural and religious. Each of these types covers wide sections of the population and is characterized by a significant extent in time. In addition, the identified species may have an overlapping nature. A separate category is represented by international conflicts (examples of which we constantly see in the news), including between individual states and their coalitions.
Concept and general characteristics of group conflicts
Definition 1
Group conflicts are a type of conflict that develops in society or a work collective, one of the parties to which is always a small social group.
Carrying out a general description of group conflicts, we note that they are most characteristic of work collectives and large organizations. At the same time, we can say that they are less common in comparison with interpersonal conflicts, but lead to more serious negative consequences, since conflict confrontation in such cases arises as a result of the simultaneous collision of many different motives, interests and needs, as well as group opinions.
Group conflicts are characterized by a number of features, such as:
- It is necessary to understand and take into account the specifics of a group conflict in terms of the peculiarities of the content of some structural elements of the corresponding conflict - the special nature of the process of forming the image of a conflict situation, since in this case it is formed not on the basis of individual, but on the basis of group views, opinions, assessments; a high degree of significance of group attribution, due to which, in a state of group conflict, everything that turns out to be associated with one opposing group is automatically assessed negatively by representatives of the other.
- Group conflicts are characterized by special forms of formation and active development, including meetings, strikes, discussions, rallies, etc.;
- A group conflict is also recognized as a conflict between an individual and a group; accordingly, in a situation of managing such conflicts, it is necessary to simultaneously influence both the motives and interests of the party to the conflict, represented by one individual, and the group motives of the opposing side;
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Conflict between individual and group
This type usually occurs when an individual in a group refuses to act in the same way as the rest of its members, thereby demonstrating nonconformist behavior. Or he commits a certain act that is considered unacceptable in this group, which provokes a conflict. An example is Rolan Bykov’s feature film “Scarecrow” (1983), in which the main character, Lena Bessoltseva, comes into conflict with class. Also a striking example of nonconformist behavior in a group, provoking conflict, is the tragic fate of the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno.
Patterns of personality behavior in conflict
Depending on the motives and attitudes of the individual, the following models of behavior in conflict are distinguished:
- Constructive – when an individual directs all his efforts to eliminate and resolve the conflict. How this will happen is another question. But the main thing is the goal, where the person wants to eliminate the conflict and improve relationships with people.
- Destructive – when an individual does not solve, but aggravates the problem. He manipulates, insults, humiliates, causes additional pain and commits actions that further escalate the situation.
- Conformist - when an individual does not try to argue, but takes the opponent’s side, which eliminates the conflict. In such a situation, an individual quickly puts an end to a dispute with another person if he really doesn’t care how it ends, who wins and whose side will be occupied.
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Forms of conflicts
This category implies the presence of a certain specificity of actions that form the conflict. Among the main forms in which a conflict can occur, the following can be identified (Samsonova N.V.): dispute (controversy), claim, condemnation, boycott, strike, sabotage, strike, abuse (swearing), quarrel, threat, enmity, encroachment , coercion, attack, war (political conflicts). Examples of disputes and polemics can also be found in scientific communities, which once again proves the possibility of a constructive nature of the conflict.
In relation to all types of conflicts, three main theoretical approaches can be considered:
- motivational;
- situational;
- cognitive.
Essence, general characteristics and forms of intergroup conflicts
Definition 1
Intergroup conflicts are an independent type of social conflicts identified in the specialized literature, the peculiarity of which is that they represent a clash of interests of small or large social groups (work collectives, social communities), for example, regarding the struggle for spheres of influence, the possession of limited resources, etc.
It should be noted that the description of intergroup conflicts equally covers conflicts between both formal and informal social groups. In addition, it should be taken into account that intergroup conflicts at the initial stage can also arise between individuals, provided that they convey not individual, but collective interests.
Speaking about the features of intergroup conflicts, we note that the nature of intergroup confrontation is determined by the content of its main elements, including the individual content of the subject of the conflict, i.e. intragroup views, motives and values. For example, intergroup conflict can be generated by an inadequate self-esteem of a group, placing itself above other similar social communities;
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In addition, certain features are associated with the type of intergroup conflicts we are talking about - most often these are the confrontation between the administration of the organization and subordinates, trade unions, conflicts between competing organizations, informal social groups, etc.
In form, intergroup conflicts can be expressed as:
- Rivalry between social groups whose activities are aimed at achieving the same goal, the possession of certain benefits, etc. At the same time, in the process of corresponding aspiration, contradictions between such social groups intensify;
- A direct clash of social groups is the commission by a group or individuals acting on behalf of the corresponding group of actions directly aimed at causing damage to the opposing social group;
- Conflict in the form of dominance of one group of individuals over another, which is expressed in the possession of a certain advantage in something;
- Evasion (avoidance) is the desire of one or both social groups to distance themselves from another, in order to prevent the escalation of the conflict and the increase in tension in their interaction with each other;
- Accommodation is an attempt by one social group to adapt to the onslaught of an opposing social group, for example, through assimilation, that is, identifying and assimilating the essential characteristics and rules of behavior in the opposing social group.
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Motivational approach
From the point of view of this approach, the hostility of a certain individual or group is primarily a reflection of its internal problems. So, for example, from Freud’s position, autogroup hostility is an inevitable condition of any intergroup interaction, having a universal character. The main function of this hostility is a means of maintaining internal stability and cohesion of the group. Political conflicts occupy a special place in this case. Examples can be found in the history of the formation of the fascist movement in Germany and Italy (the idea of racial superiority), as well as in the history of the fight against “enemies of the people” during the period of Stalinist repressions. Freud associated the mechanism of formation of auto-group hostility towards “strangers” with the Oedipus complex, the instinct of aggression, as well as with emotional identification with the leader of the group - “father”, etc. From a moral point of view, such facts cannot be considered as a constructive conflict. Examples of racial discrimination and mass terror, however, clearly demonstrate the possibility of uniting members of one group in the process of confrontation with others.
In the theoretical concept of aggressiveness by American psychologist Leonard Berkowitz, relative deprivation is one of the key factors in intergroup conflicts. That is, one of the groups assesses its position in society as more disadvantaged compared to the position of other groups. At the same time, deprivation is relative in nature, since the disadvantaged position in reality may not correspond to reality.
The concept of group conflicts and their classification
⇐ PreviousPage 5 of 9Next ⇒· Group conflict is a confrontation in which at least one of the parties is represented by a small social group.
We agree to consider a small group to be a small group (from 3 to 40 people) of people who have a common goal, are connected by joint activities and are in direct personal contact (communication) for a long time.
There are two main types of group conflicts:
1. Conflict "person-group"
2. Group-group conflict (sometimes called intergroup conflict).
In accordance with this division, let us consider the classification of group conflicts.
1. Classification of conflicts of the “person-group” type:
1.1. Conflict between the leader and the team
usually arises as a result of low competence of the boss, unacceptable management style, appointment of a new manager with unique requirements;
1.2. Conflict between an ordinary employee and the team
can develop when someone deviates from established group norms of behavior. Sometimes the cause of such a conflict is the presence in the team of a personality with a pronounced conflict orientation (the so-called conflict personality);
1.3. Conflict between the individual and the microgroup
may arise as a result of changes in group consciousness, the leader exceeding his authority, low professional training
2. Classification of conflicts of the “group-group” type:
2.1. Conflict between the administration and staff of the organization
may arise due to violation of legal norms, low wages, poor communication;
2.2. Conflict between divisions
in an organization it usually arises due to the distribution of resources, mutual dependence on tasks performed, structural restructuring;
2.3. Conflict between microgroups
in an organization is associated with the opposition of their interests, the ambitions of their leaders, the presence of mutually exclusive goals and values;
2.4. Conflict between organizations
has the following reasons: failure to fulfill contractual obligations, struggle for sales markets, access to resources, spheres of influence;
2.5. Conflict between informal groups in society
is based on group extremism or a discrepancy in spiritual interests and values.
three to the study and description of group conflicts :
A. The motivational approach to the study of group conflicts proposes consideration of a complex of motivating reasons as a basis for explaining group behavior. For example, within the framework of this approach, group hostility towards “outsiders” is considered as a mechanism for maintaining internal stability and cohesion of the group.
B. The situational approach to the study of group conflicts focuses the attention of researchers on the analysis of the situation as a set of external factors. The situation may be in the nature of cooperation or competition. Proof of the situational conditionality of group conflicts was produced by American psychologists M. Sheriff, R. Blake, J. Mouton. The findings of these researchers helped to refute the idea that intergroup hostility is inevitable and has its origins in human nature and human relationships.
B. The cognitive approach to the study of group conflicts emphasizes the decisive role of the group’s cognitive (cognitive) attitudes towards each other. According to scientists, the decisive factor in intergroup interaction is not the cooperative or competitive nature of the situation, but the social attitudes that arise.
Currently, a promising direction in the study of group conflicts is the combination of different approaches. All group conflicts have a common development dynamics:
1) Gradual strengthening of the parties to the conflict due to the introduction of increasingly active forces, as well as through the accumulation of experience;
2) An increase in the number of problem situations and a deepening of the primary conflict situation;
3) Increasing conflict activity of participants, changing the nature of the conflict towards toughening, involving new people in the conflict;
4) The increase in emotional tension that accompanies conflict interactions, which can influence the behavior of participants in both mobilizing and disorganizing ways;
5) Changing the attitude towards the problem situation and the conflict in general.
Let's move on to studying ways to manage group conflicts.
2. Conflicts of the “person-group” type: features, causes and specifics of management.
The main features of conflicts between an individual and a group are the following:
1. Structure
such a conflict is heterogeneous. The subjects of the conflict are, on the one hand, the individual, and on the other, the group. Therefore, conflict interaction occurs on the basis of a collision of personal and group motives, and images of a conflict situation are presented, respectively, in individual and group views and assessments;
2. Causes
Conflicts of this type are unique. Three main groups of reasons can be distinguished, namely:
2.1. Reasons associated with violation of role expectations
;
2.2. Reasons associated with the inadequacy of the internal attitude to the status of the individual
. Here we will keep in mind that the internal attitude reflects the individual’s subjective perception of his status, and the status shows the real position of the individual in the system of intra-group relations;
2.3. Reasons associated with violating group norms
or general rules of behavior that all members of the group adhere to;
3. Forms of manifestation
Such conflicts are quite diverse:
3.1. Application of group sanctions;
3.2. Significant restriction or complete cessation of communication between group members and the conflicting person;
3.3. Sharp criticism of the conflicting person;
3.4. Euphoria on the part of the conflicting party.
We should dwell on such a variety as conflict between the group and the leader . Such conflicts occur most acutely in cases where the manager’s competence does not correspond to accepted standards and existing expectations, or in cases of non-acceptance of the manager’s moral character and character.
Let us consider the main stages of managing such conflicts and the corresponding management actions.
1. Conflict prediction stage . At this stage, the following actions are advisable:
1.1. Studying the individual psychological characteristics of employees;
1.2. Study and analysis of public opinion, group motives and values;
1.3. Analysis of relationships in a team, identification of microgroups, identification of leaders and outcasts;
1.4. Knowledge and analysis of early symptoms of hidden conflict:
– actualization of personal interests and needs of the conflicting personality;
– critical statements addressed to the conflicting personality;
– restriction of communications with a conflicting personality;
1.5. Violating group norms, displaying arrogance and contempt;
2. prevention stage is characterized by the adoption of specific measures to neutralize conflict behavior. These include:
2.1. Application of pedagogical measures:
– conversation;
– explanation;
– formation of internal readiness (to accept group norms);
2.2. Application of administrative measures:
– bringing into compliance the responsibilities and professional training of a potential conflictant;
– transfer of active participants in the brewing conflict to other units;
3. The stage of conflict regulation is characterized by work to recognize its reality by the conflicting person. In addition, at this stage the following actions give results:
– clarification
conflict personality causes of the current situation and consequences of the conflict;
– explanation
the leader of the microgroup in which the conflict has arisen, ways of possible resolution of the conflict;
4. resolution stage is usually associated with the active actions of its participants. There are two main ways to resolve conflict:
– first
when a conflicting person realizes and admits his mistakes and shortcomings and corrects them;
– second
, when the interests and needs of a conflicting individual are not consistent with the interests of the group, a personnel decision (dismissal, transfer) is necessary.
Let's move on to consider the conflict between groups.
3. Conflict of the “group-group” type: features, causes and specifics of management .
In an intergroup conflict, the subjects are groups (small, medium or micro groups) pursuing goals that are incompatible with the goals of the opposing group. Thus, the basis of this conflict is the collision of opposing group motives, interests, values and goals. Let us highlight the features of intergroup interests:
1. Subjective content of the image of a conflict situation
is in the nature of group views, opinions and assessments. It is characterized by the presence of three phenomena:
1.1. Deindividuation of mutual perception
comes down to blurring the individual characteristics of members of conflicting groups and approaching them in accordance with their belonging to one’s own or a hostile community;
1.2. Inadequate group comparison
represents the use of double standards for evaluating groups, when one's own group is rated higher, and the merits of the opposing group are underestimated;
1.3. Group attribution
or explaining group behavior with different reasons. Thus, the positive behavior of the in-group and the negative behavior of the out-group is explained by internal reasons, and the negative behavior of the in-group and the positive behavior of the out-group is explained by external reasons;
2. Intergroup conflicts differ in forms
manifestations and progression. Such forms can be meetings, conferences, rallies, strikes, discussions, negotiations.
Additional functions appear in intergroup conflicts
, such as cohesion of a group defending just interests; the split of a group defending illegal interests; approval of the individual’s status in the group.
Let's move on to studying ways to manage intergroup conflicts. To do this, we use the same stages as in the case of studying conflicts between an individual and a group, which we discussed earlier.
1. At the stage of conflict prediction it is necessary:
1.1. Constant interaction with external organizations to analyze public opinion;
1.2. Organization of work with leaders of opposing groups;
1.3. Identifying early symptoms of intergroup conflicts in the latent phase.
2. At the stage of conflict prevention, conflict management comes down to the following actions:
2.1. Development of measures to neutralize the conflict based on an analysis of its causes and factors;
2.2. Continue to work with leaders to exchange information about potential rivals;
2.3. Application of pedagogical and administrative measures;
3. At the stage of conflict management it is necessary:
3.1. Recognition of the reality of the conflict by the leaders of conflicting groups;
3.2. Legitimization of the conflict, i.e. establishing norms and rules for conflict group interaction;
3.3. Institution of conflict, i.e. creation of working groups to resolve conflicts;
3.4. Application of conflict regulation technologies (information, communication, socio-psychological, organizational).
4. At the stage of conflict resolution, it is necessary to organize negotiations between the conflicting parties and direct them to harmonize interests and positions.
As a result of studying this topic, the following conclusions can be formulated:
· In the study of group conflicts, there are three main approaches - motivational, situational and cognitive, which differ in the interpretation of the main sources of conflict.
· There are conflicts between groups and conflicts between individuals and groups. They have specific features, but there is a certain commonality in their management.
Task 8
Analyze the cases of group conflicts of the “person-group” type known to you. Focus on the method of resolving such conflicts (real and optimal). Enter the analysis data into the table.
| Description of the conflict between the individual and the group | Analysis of the causes | Resolution method |
| Real | Optimal |
LECTURE “CONFLICTS IN THE FAMILY” (Topic 10) .
The main areas of interpersonal interaction among adults are family relationships
and professional activities. It is these areas that are the most common in terms of conflict. With regard to family conflicts, there is a basic contradiction, which consists in the fact that society approves of the idea of the conflict-free nature of family relationships. At the same time, it is in the family that many needs of the individual are satisfied, which almost inevitably leads to the emergence of contradictions, and therefore creates, at a minimum, conditions for conflict interaction between people. Therefore, studying the causes and characteristics of conflicts in the family allows us to find optimal ways to prevent and resolve them.
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Situational approach
This approach is focused on external factors, the situation that determines the emergence and specifics of the conflict. Thus, in the research of the Turkish psychologist Muzafer Sherif, it was found that the hostility of one group towards another is significantly reduced if, instead of competitive conditions, they are provided with cooperative conditions (the need to perform joint activities in which the result depends on the common efforts of all participants). Thus, Sherif concludes that the factors of the situation in which groups interact are decisive in determining the cooperative or competitive nature of intergroup interaction.
Types of interpersonal conflicts
A large number of characteristics of the same process make it possible to classify interpersonal conflict according to a variety of criteria. In terms of direction it can be:
- Horizontal
, when participants have equal rights. - Vertical
, when one of the parties is subordinate. - Mixed
. Such contradictions often arise in organizations.
By meaning there are:
- constructive or creative;
- destructive or disruptive.
Types of interpersonal conflicts are divided by duration into:
- Situational contradictions.
- Prolonged disagreements.
Constructive conflict
The concept of constructive conflict means interaction, which ultimately leads to relations reaching a qualitatively higher level. It is possible when the parties:
- Adhere to ethical and business practices.
- Pay attention to your opponent's arguments.
- They strive to resolve the situation, not to win at any cost.
The specificity of constructive interpersonal conflict is that:
- Thanks to this confrontation, the parties realize that the contradictions that have arisen are an unfavorable symptom of building relationships.
- In the process of conflict, important disagreements are revealed, the overcoming of which takes interaction to a new, higher level.
- With proper resolution of the contradiction, factors of disagreement are removed, mutual understanding and cooperation between the parties is established.
Destructive conflict
Often conflicts in interpersonal relationships are destructive or disruptive. That is, one of the participants categorically and firmly insists that he is right, without accepting the position of the second. Such an individual often resorts to a judgmental method of struggle and strives to win the conflict at any cost. With this approach, it is difficult to talk about the correct resolution and reaching a new level of interaction.
Possible consequences of such communication:
- Destruction or significant deterioration of established relationships.
- Feeling of resentment, dissatisfaction, anger or irritation of one or all opponents.
- Low effectiveness of further joint activities.
Cognitive approach
In this case, the emphasis is on the dominant role of the cognitive (mental) attitudes of the conflict participants relative to each other. Thus, in a situation of intergroup conflicts, the hostility of one group towards another is not necessarily due to an objective conflict of interests (as was stated in the realistic theory of conflicts within the framework of the situational approach). Accordingly, it is not the cooperative/competitive nature of the situation that becomes the decisive factor in interpersonal and intergroup interaction, but the group attitudes that arise in the process. The common goals themselves lead to the resolution of conflicts between opponents - it depends on the formation of social attitudes that unite groups and help overcome their confrontation.
Tajfel and Turner developed social identity theory, which argues that conflict between groups is not necessarily a consequence of social injustice (contrary to the motivational approach). When faced with this injustice, individuals have the opportunity to independently choose one or another way to overcome it.
What is interpersonal conflict?
A special science deals with the study of various confrontations - conflictology. It has a clear definition that interpersonal conflict is an open contradiction between two or more individuals that arises in the process of interaction in various spheres of society: economic, political, sociocultural and others. Such confrontation appears when people begin to perceive the current situation as a problem with psychological overtones.
Conflict culture of personality
Regardless of whether there are international conflicts, examples of which most clearly demonstrate the destructive nature of the conflicting behavior of the parties; or we are talking about a minor quarrel between work colleagues, the optimal way out seems extremely significant. The ability of the opposing parties to find compromises in a complex disputed situation, to restrain their own destructive behavior, to see possible prospects for further cooperation with real opponents - all these factors are the key to a possible favorable outcome. At the same time, no matter how important the total role of state policy, economic and cultural-legal systems in society is, the origins of this trend are in certain specific individuals. Just like a river begins with small streams.
We are talking about a conflictological culture of personality. The corresponding concept includes the ability and desire of an individual to prevent and resolve social conflicts (Samsonova N.V.). In this case, it is advisable to recall the concept of “constructive conflict”. Examples of modern conflicts (given their aggravated and large-scale nature) demonstrate, rather, the absence of any constructiveness in conflict interaction. In this regard, the concept of conflictological culture of the individual should be considered not only and not so much as one of the conditions for the optimal resolution of controversial situations in society, but also as the most important factor in the socialization of the personality of every modern individual.
Causes of interpersonal conflicts
In society, millions of interpersonal conflicts flare up every day; there is no person who does not participate in them at least once. If an individual is not the instigator of the confrontation, then he can be drawn into it even against his will. This is facilitated by various causes of interpersonal conflicts, which can be divided into five groups:
- Information reasons, which are based on information unacceptable to one of the parties. These may include incomplete or inaccurate facts, rumors, misinformation, the release of unsolicited or confidential communications, misinterpretations, or controversial issues in existing laws or regulations.
- Confrontation between people often arises against the background of behavioral factors. Rudeness, aggression or selfishness of one of the parties.
- Dissatisfaction with the relationship between the parties. This can be either dissatisfaction with the existing interaction, or a proposal for its development or continuation.
- Value reasons. This may include those personal attitudes and beliefs that are accepted by one side but rejected by the other.
- Structural factors or stable circumstances that exist regardless of the will of a particular individual, that is, those that he cannot change. System of government or justice, gender, age, etc.
Group conflicts - presentation
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH OF THE RYANSK REGION STATE AUTONOMOUS PROFESSIONAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION "BRYANSK BASIC MEDICAL COLLEGE" GROUP CONFLICTS Completed by: Shulga K. Yu. student of group 49 fm 4 Teacher: Serkova E.I. .
Not only individuals, but also social groups, small and large, conflict with each other. Group conflicts are no less common in social practice than interpersonal conflicts. In the process of group interaction, everyone can become involved in group conflict.
THE CONCEPT OF GROUP CONFLICTS Two main types of group conflicts: “personal group” conflict “group group” conflict
THE CONCEPT OF GROUP CONFLICTS Each of the identified types of group conflicts has its own specificity according to the main features: 1. with the structure of such a conflict 2. reflects the specifics of the causes of the conflict under consideration “position” “status” “internal attitude” “role” “group norms” 3. finds its own reflected in the forms of manifestation of this conflict is reflected in the forms of manifestation of this conflict
TYPES OF GROUP CONFLICTS 1. Intrapersonal conflict: a) caused by intragroup problems; b) brought from outside and causing intra-group tension 2. Interpersonal conflict: a) value-normative; b) status-role; c) psychological incompatibility 3. Conflict between a group (subgroup) and a group member 4. Conflict between subgroups in a separate group 5. Conflict between formal and informal systems of relations 6. Intergroup conflicts
CLASSIFICATION OF GROUP CONFLICTS Charles McClintock identified six types of such motives: 1. Cooperation 2. Individualism 3. Rivalry 4. Altruism 5. Aggression 6. Equality
INTERGROUP CONFLICTS A person in the course of his life is simultaneously a member of several social groups. Since the interests of various groups, as a rule, do not coincide, and in some cases they oppose each other, this leads to the emergence of conflict situations between them, conflict interactions into which members of these groups are drawn. During the course of his life, a person is simultaneously a member of several social groups. Since the interests of various groups, as a rule, do not coincide, and in some cases they oppose each other, this leads to the emergence of conflict situations between them, conflict interactions into which members of these groups are drawn.
INTERGROUP CONFLICTS The specific features of conflicts include 2 types: The first type includes the clash of personal and group interests and motives The second type includes, firstly, a pronounced subjective nature, secondly, the specificity of the forms of their course, thirdly, the antagonism of the subjects of the conflict
INTERGROUP CONFLICTS In considering group conflicts, two main approaches should be distinguished: Sociological approach Psychological approach
INTERGROUP CONFLICTS Situations of intergroup conflict come down to three phenomena:
FUNCTIONS OF INTERGROUP CONFLICTS: group cohesion, group split, affirmation of individual status in the group
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERGROUP CONFLICTS
Group conflicts are nothing more than a confrontation in which at least one of the parties is represented by a small social group.
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION!
Topic 3.2. Interpersonal and intergroup conflicts
Plan:
1. General characteristics of interpersonal conflicts
2. Types of interpersonal conflicts
3. Intergroup conflicts
1. General characteristics of interpersonal conflicts
Conflict is a confrontation between two principles, manifesting itself in the activity of the parties aimed at overcoming the contradiction, and the parties to the conflict are represented by active subjects (Grishina).
Constructive and destructive conflict
A conflict is destructive if its participants are not satisfied with the results and feel deprived. As a result, relationships between people deteriorate or a break occurs. The problem that caused the conflict remains unresolved. Opponents discuss each other's personal shortcomings and do not discuss the problem. Predominantly forceful methods are used, the meaning of the partner’s words is distorted, and rivals build communication barriers. One's gain means the other's loss.
Conflict is constructive if the participants are happy with the outcome and feel that they have benefited. It helps improve relationships and deepen mutual understanding. A solution to the problem has been found. During the discussion, the positions and interests of the partner and your own are clarified. In a short time, an intensive search for an effective solution to the problem is organized. The main attention of the participants is aimed at finding a solution to the problem, and not at mutual suppression of each other. In order for a conflict to be resolved constructively, it is necessary:
- so that when discussing a problem, partners are inclined to understand each other, and not to fight for their position;
- do not deviate from a substantive discussion of the problem and do not “get personal”;
- take into account the interests of the partner, and not just defend your own interests.
M. Deutsch identified two types of motivational orientation in conflict:
Cooperative orientation: Each party is interested in the welfare of the other as well as their own. The likelihood of one person achieving a goal is positively related to the likelihood of others achieving it. Cooperation is characterized by perceived similarity in ideas, willingness to help, openness in communication, trusting and friendly attitudes, sensitivity to common interests and non-emphasis of opposing interests, etc.
Competitive Orientation: Each party strives to achieve as much as possible for itself while gaining more than the other. The likelihood of one achieving a goal is negatively related to the likelihood of others achieving a goal. Competition is characterized by coercive tactics, threats or cunning; attempts to increase differences between oneself and another; limited communication; emphasizing the contrast of interests; suspicious and hostile attitudes; rigidity and scale of the conflict problem.
Conflict is a form of response to a competitive situation. Conflict is not the same as competition. Competition is a situation of interaction that means negative interdependence of goals. Conflict as a collision of incompatible actions and interests is a characteristic not of a situation, but of interpersonal relationships. The decisive condition for entering into a conflict is not the fact of incompatibility of actions itself, but the perception of incompatibility.
Factors that lead to conflict getting out of control and perpetuating them:
- Anarchic social organization. These are situations where there is no social order or mutual trust. They interfere with rational behavior. In such situations, some individuals seek to increase their own well-being or safety, without paying attention to protecting the well-being and safety of others. Such situations are described by the game "Prisoner's Dilemma";
— orientation towards “win-loss” relationships (competition);
- internal conflicts of each party, which manifest themselves through external conflict;
- cognitive rigidity;
- erroneous judgments and distorted perceptions;
- involuntary connection. In a conflict, the parties are overly committed to their rigid positions, and are also bound by their beliefs and defenses. The conflict is supported by the obligations assumed by its participants during the conflict and the corresponding actions;
- self-fulfilling prophecies;
- gambling orientation, which moves the conflict away from questions about what is won and lost in real life, to an abstract conflict for power.
K. Levin. The basis of interpersonal conflict is the satisfaction of needs. Interpersonal conflicts include the conflict between a person’s own needs and an external objective compelling force. Factors causing conflicts in a group:
1. Satisfaction/dissatisfaction of human needs, especially basic ones, such as the need for security. Conflicts become more serious if they affect the most significant needs of a person.
2. General level of tension in the group. Tension is created by unmet needs.
3. “Space of free movement” of a person as a condition for satisfying needs. Limitation of “free movement” leads to dissatisfaction of individual needs and increased tension. Interpersonal conflict does not arise if the individual finds sufficient space for free movement to satisfy his own needs within the group without affecting the interests of the group. This problem is especially difficult to solve in a married group, since it is difficult to provide private space there.
4. External barrier: the presence or absence of the opportunity to get out of an unpleasant situation. Tension causes a desire to get out of the situation. If this is possible, severe tension will be relieved. The absence of such an opportunity provokes the development of strong tension and conflict.
5. The degree to which the goals of group members coincide or diverge. Conflicts arise when group members' goals conflict with each other and they are not willing to consider the other's point of view.
2. Types of interpersonal conflicts
1. True (real) conflict. This is an objectively existing conflict, perceived “correctly”. It does not depend on easily changing environmental conditions. For example, the wife wants to use one of the rooms as a painting studio, and the husband would like to place his office there, but they can only use this room at the same time. True conflicts are difficult to resolve amicably unless the parties involved cooperate or resort to a neutral and mutually accepted institutional conflict resolution mechanism (arbitration or coin toss).
2. Random conflict. Occurs if there are alternative resources to satisfy the needs of the conflicting parties. A random conflict depends on a set of circumstances that are not realized by the participants. The true conflict given as an example would become accidental if there was some kind of attic, garage, or other room that could be turned into a studio or office. If the subject of a “random” conflict has become so important that replacing it with an alternative can lead to loss of face, the conflict loses its “randomness” and easy solvability. “Random” conflicts are difficult to resolve when the cognitive resources of the conflicting parties are too narrow or there are strong emotional frictions.
3. Substituted conflict. The parties argue over the “wrong” issue. Husband and wife conflict about money, replacing the “unexpressed” conflict on sexual grounds. An expressed conflict is a conflict-manifest, and one that is not expressed directly is a conflict-basis. A manifesto conflict reflects the underlying conflict in symbolic form when it is too sensitive or acute to speak about directly. Also, a manifest conflict may reflect general tension between participants regarding an unresolved underlying conflict.
Examples of manifest conflicts as symptoms of a core conflict: a neurotic person who is constantly concerned about whether the stove is turned off (trying to trust himself, but is afraid of the unpredictability of his actions); an argument between two brothers about what TV program to watch (they are fighting for attention from the family). Manifest conflicts can only be resolved temporarily - until the underlying conflict is resolved.
4. Non-attributive conflict. The conflict has an inauthentic basis and inauthentic participants. For example, someone scolds a child for doing something at the direction of his parents. By inciting internal conflict within a group and thus weakening it, the true conflict between the group and its conqueror can be hidden (divide and conquer). If there is a shortage of jobs, white and black workers are more likely to criticize each other rather than the government or the social system.
5. Latent conflict. This is a conflict that should arise, but does not arise. Reasons: the conflict is “replaced”, suppressed, non-attributed or does not exist psychologically. Even if a woman denies the superiority of men over women, she will not fight for women's rights until she is aware of the existence of discrimination.
6. False conflict. The emergence of a conflict when there are no objective conditions for this. Involves misperception or misunderstanding. A false conflict that arises can give rise to new motives that will turn it into a real one. This is more likely to happen in a competitive environment than in a cooperative one.
Conflicts in the organization and marital conflicts
Interpersonal conflicts appear by the age of one or two years. Ya.L. Kolominsky and B.P. Zhiznevsky: in younger children (1-2 years old), conflicts most often arise over toys, in children of middle preschool age because of roles, and in older preschool age because of the rules of the game.
Family and work conflicts are the most common in adult interactions.
Conflicts at work, in the organization. Conflicts with a manager arise more often than when interacting with colleagues, since broader problems of a person’s relationship with the organization can be personified in relations with a manager. Problems in the relationship between subordinates and managers are a consequence of the fact that managers are interested in increasing control, while subordinates strive for autonomy. D. Katz and R. Kahn: about half of the workers surveyed are in conditions of obvious conflict.
T. Polozova identified two types of intragroup conflicts – subject-related and personal-pragmatic. The higher the level of development of the group, the less frequent the personal-pragmatic conflicts, and the more frequent the substantive-business conflicts.
N. I. Frygina studied cognitive conflicts that arise in the process of collective creative or scientific activity. Collisions of different points of view are an important factor in developing collective decisions. If these contradictions move from the objective to the emotional plane, this leads to the destruction of an effective creative process.
Conflicts in the family. E. G. Eidemiller and V. Justitskis: contradictions between the individual and the family are inevitable, as is the need to constantly resolve disagreements that arise. They point out the inconsistency of the idyllic idea of the family (stability of good relationships and satisfaction of everyone with family life). In a family, a person is constantly faced with a choice - to get used to the characteristics of the family that do not satisfy him, to distance himself, or to find a new way of integrating with it.
V. Ya. Levkovich and O. E. Zuskova divide all families into three groups with t.z. level of conflict: stable (coping with family conflicts); problematic (partially coping); unstable (not overcoming the conflict and having a negative family orientation). The basis of family conflicts is a discrepancy between the spouses’ ideas about each other’s needs, between the ideas and expectations of one in relation to the other.
T. M. Mishina distinguishes three main types of interaction disorders in married couples:
1) Relationships of “competition”. The relationship is contradictory, friendly-hostile. Open clashes and quarrels constantly occur between spouses, mutual reproaches and aggressive manifestations arise. The family roles of the partners are not clearly defined; as a result, they are not able to take responsibility for the couple as a whole. Conflicts arise in the areas of care and guardianship, dominance and emotional acceptance.
2) “Pseudo-collaboration” relations. The relationship looks smooth outwardly, with elements of exaggerated concern for the partner. The reasons for conflicts lie in the extra-family sphere and are associated with individual difficulties or problems that arise among spouses.
3) Relationships of “isolation”. Relationships in the family do not have an obvious conflict nature. With external coordination of actions, the spouses are emotionally isolated from each other, are not interested in each other, the marriage is supported by some other benefits of common existence. Conflicts arise if the “borders of isolation” are violated either towards rapprochement or towards even greater disunity.
K. Levin identified the following factors of marital conflicts:
1. The degree of satisfaction of individual needs. Unmet needs increase the likelihood of conflict. The needs satisfied in marriage are varied and contradictory. Spouses expect each other to perform functions that cannot always be combined in one person. For example, a husband may expect that his wife will simultaneously be his lover, comrade, housewife, mother, that she herself will earn money to support the family, and represent the family in social life. Failure to perform any of these functions may result in essential needs not being met.
If satisfaction of needs has led to oversaturation, this also increases the likelihood of conflict. The problem is the discrepancy in the number of actions required by spouses to satisfy a need. The number of actions required to satisfy one partner may be excessive for the other. Therefore, a less satisfied partner may seek satisfaction elsewhere, which has a negative impact on marital life.
Achieving a balance of satisfying needs in the sexual sphere is considered especially important. Sexual desire and disgust are closely related and one can turn into the other if satiety sets in. Spouses may have different rhythms of sexual life and manner of sexual satisfaction. Balance is achieved if the divergence between partners is not too great, and marriage has great positive value for them.
Unsatisfied need for security also leads to conflicts. In a marital group, a person gains acceptance, protection from the adversities of the outside world, and an understanding of the value of his personality. The need for security is not satisfied if there is no trust in the spouse, if he is financially insolvent.
2. A space of free movement, sufficient to satisfy a person’s personal needs and not interfering with the realization of the interests of the group. Ensuring an adequate private sphere within the marital group is especially difficult because this group is small and the relationships between group members are very close (you have to allow another person into your private sphere) - there is not enough space for free movement.
Love limits the space of a partner's private life, because... it extends to all areas of his life, his past, present and future. Even if a spouse treats certain aspects of his partner’s life with sympathy and interest, he thereby deprives him of a certain space of free movement. If marriage deprives people of privacy, it can destroy the relationship. Marriage forces you to accept both the pleasant and unpleasant qualities of your partner. For example, two families communicated closely and friendly with each other until they decided to spend the summer holidays together. After these holidays, they stopped all relations altogether, because... the lack of privacy destroyed their friendship.
3. The meaning of marriage in the life space of the individual. Marriage may be perceived as a hindrance to achieving other goals, or it may be perceived as help (financial assistance from a spouse, help from children in the present or future). The importance of marriage for partners is also expressed in the time devoted to household chores and activities outside the home. If the balance is disturbed, it leads to conflicts.
Conflicts intensify if spouses have different assessments of the meaning of marriage and the different tasks that each spouse seeks to solve in marriage cannot be realized at the same time.
4. The spouses belong to overlapping groups—different groups that have conflicting goals and ideologies. For example, spouses belong to different national, religious or socio-economic groups.
Conflicts arise if partners are overly attached to their families of origin, especially if friendly relations were not established between the families from the very beginning. The potential for membership in the former group is higher than the potential for membership in the spousal group. A person simultaneously becomes a member of groups that contradict each other. Therefore, you should not live too close to your parents.
Jealousy. The intimate relationship of one of the spouses with a third party makes him lost to the second spouse. The second spouse has the feeling that part of his private life is becoming known to a third party. A spouse’s relationship with a third party is a gap in the barrier that closes your intimate life from others.
Levin sees the resolution of marital conflicts not in sacrificing one’s freedom in the name of marriage, but in perceiving the partner’s goals as one’s own (identification with the partner), in the emergence of a strong sense of “we” (democratic group atmosphere) - the willingness to take into account the point of view and goals of the partner , willingness to discuss personal problems.
3. Intergroup conflicts
L. Berkowitz. The concept of frustration determination of aggression. The main concept is relative deprivation. This is an assessment of the position of one's group as worse compared to other groups. Dissatisfaction is caused primarily by relative rather than absolute deprivation: objectively advantaged groups feel more dissatisfaction if their expectations were higher or if they are surrounded by people who are better off than they are.
Relative deprivation becomes a source of frustration and subsequent possible aggression for the group. The object of aggression can be not only the one who directly caused the frustration, but people associated with him on the basis of group affiliation or for other reasons who find themselves in the position of a scapegoat.
D. Campbell. Intergroup conflict is associated with competition in the acquisition of limited resources (a real conflict of interests). Intergroup conflict will be especially intense if the actual conflict of interest is significant and the parties' perceived gains are large. A real threat determines intra-group solidarity and a more complete awareness by the individual of his own group affiliation (identity), leads group members to exaggerate their own merits and the shortcomings of others. A real threat reduces individuals' deviations from group norms. A real threat increases the degree of punishment and the degree of rejection of those who violate loyalty to their group and deviate from group norms.
G. Tajfel. The determinants of intergroup conflicts are not cooperative or competitive interaction, but the social attitudes that arise from this. Intergroup conflict is not an inevitable consequence of relative deprivation. Intergroup conflicts arise if the following strategies are not implemented. Groups may choose other response strategies. Firstly, a person can move from a low-status group to a high-status group that is more attractive to him. Another strategy is “social creativity”: changing the criteria for comparison and reconsidering the unsatisfactory results of this comparison. For example, a work group that “loses” to another group in recognition from its superiors consoles itself with the fact that “but we are the friendliest and have the best relationships.” Thirdly, you can change the object of comparison: low-status segments of the population find a low-status group, in comparison with which their own group is endowed with a higher status in some respect.
Specifics of intergroup conflict:
— deindividuation of mutual perception. Members of conflicting groups perceive each other according to the “Us – They” scheme;
- inadequate group comparison. In group opinions, the in-group is rated higher, and the merits of the opposing group are underestimated;
- group attribution. The positive behavior of the in-group and the negative behavior of the out-group is explained by internal reasons. On the contrary, the negative behavior of the in-group and the positive behavior of the out-group is explained by external circumstances.
Literature:
1. Grishina N.V. Psychology of conflict. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.
2. Psychology of conflict / Comp. and general ed. N.V. Grishina. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001.
Seminar (practical) assignments:
Practical lesson 1. Team and team building
1. Disaster game “Desert Island”.
2. Role-playing game “Inheritance”.
Literature:
1. Vachkov I.V. Fundamentals of group training technology. Psychotechnicians. M.: Os-89, 2005.
2. Sidorenko E.V. Training of communicative competence in business interaction. St. Petersburg: Rech, 2003.
3. Krichevsky R.L., Dubovskaya E.M. Psychology of the small group. M. 1991.
Practical lesson 2. Group structure
1. Sociometry.
Literature:
1. Nemov R.S., Kirpichnik A.G. The path to the team. M.: Pedagogy, 1988.
2. Rean A.A., Kolominsky Ya.L. Social educational psychology. St. Petersburg: Peter Kom, 1999.
3. Krichevsky R.L., Dubovskaya E.M. Psychology of the small group. M. 1991.
Practical lesson 3. Group structure
1. Methodology “Study of normative preferences in a group.”
2. Methodology for studying the motivational core of interpersonal choices.
3. Referentometry.
Literature:
1. Nemov R.S., Kirpichnik A.G. The path to the team. M.: Pedagogy, 1988.
2. Fetiskin N.P., Kozlov V.V., Manuilov. Social diagnostics of personality development and small groups. M.: Publishing House of the Institute of Psychotherapy, 2002.
3. Krichevsky R.L., Dubovskaya E.M. Psychology of the small group. M. 1991.
Practical lesson 4. Cohesion, compatibility, harmony
1. Methodology “Seashore Group Cohesion Index”.
2. Study of the value-orientation unity of the group.
3. Experimental study of group organization.
Literature:
1. Nemov R.S., Kirpichnik A.G. The path to the team. M.: Pedagogy, 1988.
2. Fetiskin N.P., Kozlov V.V., Manuilov. Social diagnostics of personality development and small groups. M.: Publishing House of the Institute of Psychotherapy, 2002.
3. Krichevsky R.L., Dubovskaya E.M. Psychology of the small group. M. 1991.
Practical lesson 5. Leadership and management
1. Exercise “Strengths”.
2. Exercise “Formula for a leader’s success.”
3. Exercise “The Art of Persuasion.”
Literature:
1. Prutchenkov A.S. Social and psychological training at school. M.: EKSMO-Press, 2001.
2. Krichevsky R.L., Dubovskaya E.M. Psychology of the small group. M. 1991.
3. Christopher E., Smith L. Leadership training. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.
Practical lesson 6. Leadership and management
1. Exercise “Joining and leading in communicative acts of a leader.”
2. Exercise “Dictator”.
3. Exercise “I am responsible for you”
Literature:
1. Prutchenkov A.S. Social and psychological training at school. M.: EKSMO-Press, 2001.
2. Krichevsky R.L., Dubovskaya E.M. Psychology of the small group. M. 1991.
3. Christopher E., Smith L. Leadership training. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.
Practical lesson 7. Making a group decision
1. Role-playing game "Office".
2. Solving the “Transportation” problem.
Literature:
1. Kelly G., Armstrong R. Decision-making training. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001.
2. Krichevsky R.L., Dubovskaya E.M. Psychology of the small group. M. 1991.
Practical lesson 8. Interpersonal relationships in a group
1. Methodology “Assessment of the socio-psychological climate in the group.”
2. Methodology “Studying the level of conflict in a group using the semantic differential technique.”
3. Methodology “Emotional states in a group”.
Literature:
1. Lutoshkin A.N. Emotional potentials of the team. M.: Pedagogy, 1988.
2. Fetiskin N.P., Kozlov V.V., Manuilov. Social diagnostics of personality development and small groups. M.: Publishing House of the Institute of Psychotherapy, 2002.
3. Obozov N.N. Interpersonal relationships. L.: Leningrad State University, 1983.
Practical lesson 9. Interpersonal and intergroup conflicts
1. Psychological mediation in conflict resolution.
Literature:
1. Grishina N.V. Psychology of conflict. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.
2. Emelyanov S.M. Workshop on conflict management. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.
Practical lesson 10. Interpersonal and intergroup conflicts
1. Role-playing games “Conflict in transport”, “Consect”, “Scarf”.
2. Analysis of a conflict situation using a conflict map.
3. Resolution of interpersonal conflict during psychodrama.
Literature:
1. Grishina N.V. Psychology of conflict. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.
2. Conflictology: Reader / Comp. N.I. Leonov. M.: MPSI, 2002.
3. Puzikov V.G. Training technology. St. Petersburg: Rech, 2005.
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