General psychology is... Fundamentals and subject of general psychology. General and social psychology

The general characteristics of psychology as a science always pay special attention to the structure of this discipline.
Not surprising, because modern psychology is a very ramified science. Differential psychology studies mental differences, age - mental characteristics dictated by age, social - mental traits of representatives of certain social groups... The list of branches can be long. But there are also applied areas - labor psychology, sports, military...

But all this would not have happened without the basis of the foundations, the foundation, the base, the roots of that tree, which then gives life to many branches and twigs - general psychology.

Introduction to General Psychology

General psychology is a science that studies how cognitive processes, states, patterns and properties of the human psyche arise and are formed, and also generalizes various psychological studies, forms psychological knowledge, principles, methods and basic concepts.

The most complete description of these components is given in the sections of general psychology. But, at the same time, individual manifestations of the psyche are not studied by general psychology, as, for example, in sections of special psychology (pedagogical, developmental, etc.).

The main subject of study of general psychology is such forms of mental activity as memory, character, thinking, temperament, perception, motivation, emotions, sensations and other processes, which we will touch on in more detail below. They are considered by this science in close connection with human life and activity, as well as with the special characteristics of individual ethnic groups and historical background. Cognitive processes, human personality and its development inside and outside society, interpersonal relationships in different groups of people are subject to detailed study. General psychology is of great importance for such sciences as pedagogy, sociology, philosophy, art history, linguistics, etc. And the results of research conducted in the field of general psychology can be considered the starting point for all branches of psychological science.

A theoretical course in general psychology usually includes the study of any specific thematic sections, areas, research, history and problems of this science. A practical course is, as a rule, mastering the methods of research, pedagogical and practical psychological work.

General psychology

General psychology is considered the main branch of psychology. Its main concepts are mental states, processes and properties that characterize the characteristics of an individual personality. In addition to the psychology of emotions, thinking, women's psychology, psychophysics is also included in general psychology. In general psychology, work is carried out to systematize the data obtained as a result of experiments. They develop theoretical problems, formulate basic concepts, principles and patterns. Serves as the foundation for the development of other branches of science.

Social psychology studies various mental phenomena that appear during the interaction of people in groups.

The areas of interest in this area of ​​psychological science include:

• issues of forming interpersonal relationships;
• psychological compatibility;
• intra-family relationships;
• spreading rumors and tastes.

Personality psychology considers a person as a whole. A certain system of mental properties, their structure, and relationships with the environment are identified.

Of interest to genetic psychology is the study of the patterns of the human psyche and the psyche of animals throughout evolution.

The history of psychology examines various approaches and patterns of formation of views on the psyche, studies the history of psychological research in different eras. She uses methods such as the historical-genetic method or genetic reconstruction for research.

For psychophysiology, the processes and mechanisms of the higher nervous system and brain activity, which are associated with the psyche, are of great importance.

Methods of general psychology

Like any other science, general psychology uses a system of various methods. The basic methods for obtaining various facts in psychology are considered to be observation, conversation and experiments. Each of these methods can be modified to improve results.

1

Observation

Observation is the most ancient way of knowledge. Its simplest form is everyday observations. Every person uses it in their daily life. In general psychology, there are such types of observation as short-term, long-term (can take place even over several years), selective, continuous and special (participant observation, during which the observer is immersed in the group he himself is studying).

The standard observation procedure consists of several stages:

• Setting goals and objectives;
• Definition of the situation, subject and object;
• Determining the methods that will have the least impact on the object under study and ensure that the necessary data is obtained;
• Determining how data is maintained;
• Processing of received data.

External observation (by an outsider) is considered objective. It can be direct or indirect. There is also self-observation. It can be either immediate - in the current moment, or delayed, based on memories, entries from diaries, memoirs, etc. In this case, the person himself analyzes his thoughts, feelings and experiences.

Observation is an integral part of two other methods - conversation and experiment.

2

Conversation

Conversation as a psychological method involves direct/indirect, oral/written collection of information about the person being studied and his activities, as a result of which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are determined. There are such types of conversations as collecting information about a person and his life (from the person himself or from people who know him), interviews (a person answers pre-prepared questions), questionnaires and different types of questionnaires (written answers to questions).

A personal conversation between the researcher and the person being examined works best. At the same time, it is important to think through the conversation beforehand, draw up a plan and identify problems that should be identified. During the conversation, questions from the person being examined are also expected. A two-way conversation produces the best results and provides more information than just answering questions.

But the main method of research is experiment.

3

Experiment

An experiment is the active intervention of a specialist in the process of activity of the subject in order to create certain conditions under which a psychological fact will be revealed.

There is a laboratory experiment taking place under special conditions using special equipment. All actions of the subject are guided by instructions. A person knows about the experiment, although he may not know its true meaning. Some experiments are carried out repeatedly and on a whole group of people - this makes it possible to establish important patterns in the development of mental phenomena.

Another method is tests. These are tests that serve to establish any mental qualities in a person. The tests are short-term tasks that are similar for everyone, the results of which determine whether the test subjects have certain mental qualities and the level of their development. Various tests are created in order to make some predictions or make a diagnosis. They must always have a scientific basis, and must also be reliable and reveal accurate characteristics.

Since the genetic principle plays a special role in the methods of psychological research, the genetic method is also distinguished. Its essence is the study of mental development in order to reveal general psychological patterns. This method is based on observations and experiments and builds on their results.

In the process of using various methods, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the problem being studied. Therefore, along with the main methods of psychological research, a number of special auxiliary and intermediate techniques are often used.

Psychology methods are discussed in more detail in the next lesson.

Types and types

There are several main activity options. In psychology, it is customary to distinguish 4 types. From birth, a person receives the opportunity to communicate. To do this, he uses babbling, onomatopoeia and other methods of interaction. After the child begins to include words in speech activity, he gets the opportunity to contact not only his mother.

Gaming activities are aimed at mastering social experience. For example, when playing with dolls, kids practice family roles, then they try on professions, etc. This stage is preparation for work and training.

Educational activities allow you to assimilate information about the world around you. With its help, a person gets the opportunity to choose techniques and operations to achieve goals.

Labor activity is aimed at creating a socially significant product. To do this, a person can work on a joint project or involve other people to carry out his plans.

Types of activities are more widely represented. Cognitive - aimed at obtaining knowledge, artistic - at satisfying aesthetic needs, religious - helps solve issues in the spiritual sphere.

Psychological activity is a multicomponent structure, which is presented in different types and types. It directly affects a person’s development and level of achievement.

Subject and object of general psychology

Any science is characterized, among other things, by the presence of its own subject and object of study. Moreover, the subject and object of science are different things. An object is only an aspect of the subject of science that is studied by the subject, i.e. researcher. Awareness of this fact is very important for understanding the specifics of general psychology, as a multifaceted and diverse science. Considering this fact, we can say the following.

The object of general psychology is the psyche itself, as a form of interaction of living beings with the world, which is expressed in their ability to translate their impulses into reality and function in the world on the basis of available information. And the human psyche, from the point of view of modern science, serves as a mediator between the subjective and the objective, and also realizes a person’s ideas about the external and internal, bodily and mental.

The subject of general psychology is the laws of the psyche, as a form of human interaction with the outside world. This form, due to its versatility, is subject to research in completely different aspects, which are studied by different branches of psychological science. The subject is the development of the psyche, norms and pathologies in it, the types of human activities in life, as well as his attitude to the world around him.

Due to the scale of the subject of general psychology and the ability to identify many objects for research within it, there are currently general theories of psychology in psychological science that are oriented towards different scientific ideals and psychological practice itself, which develops certain psychotechniques to influence consciousness and control it. But no matter how complex the ways in which psychological thought advances, constantly transforming the object of its research and thereby plunging deeper into the subject, no matter what changes and additions it is subject to and no matter what terms it is designated, it is still possible to identify the main blocks of terms, which characterize the object of psychology. These include:

• mental processes - psychology studies mental phenomena in the process of formation and development, the product of which are results formed into images, thoughts, emotions, etc.;
• mental states – activity, depression, vigor, etc.;
• mental properties of a person - determination, hard work, temperament, character;
• mental new formations are the knowledge, skills and abilities that a person acquires throughout his life.

Naturally, all mental phenomena cannot exist in isolation, but are closely related to each other and influence each other. But we can consider each of them separately.

Ticket No. 1: Subject and tasks of general psychology

Ticket No. 1: Subject and tasks of general psychology

Psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena.

Main stages in the development of psychological science

Stage 1 - Psychology as the science of the soul - this definition of psychology was given more than 2,000 years ago. They tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life by the presence of a soul.

Stage 2 - Psychology as a science of consciousness - arose in the 17th century in connection with the development of the natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire was called consciousness. The main method of study was a person's observation of himself and the description of facts.

Stage 3 - Psychology as a science of behavior - this stage began at the beginning of the 20th century. The tasks of psychology are to observe human behavior, actions, and reactions (which can be directly seen). The motives for actions were not taken into account. The theory of reflection described by V.I. Lenin dates back to this period.

Understanding Reflection Theory

Psyche is a subjective reflection of the subjective world; the property of highly organized matter (brain) to reflect objective reality and, on the basis of the formed mental image, it is expedient to regulate the activity and behavior of the subject.

All matter has the property of reflection.

There are three main forms:

1) physical reflection - the reflection of a living thing on a non-living object. Example: reflection of light and sound, radar;

2) physiological reflection - the reaction of living organisms to external stimulation. Example: the rotation of a sunflower flower following the sun and the gravitational pull of the root in the germinating grain downward and the stem upward, as well as such complex physiological processes as changes in the retina of the eye under the influence of light, irritation of the nerve cell and conduction of excitation along the nerve, muscle contraction;

3) mental reflection , which is divided into consciousness and self-awareness. Allows you to: 1) correctly reflect the surrounding reality; 2) is committed in the process of active activity; 3) deepen and improve your own knowledge about the surrounding reality; 4) refracted through individuality; 5) is of a proactive nature.

The work of the brain is based on a reflex (Latin for reflection), i.e., a naturally occurring response of the body to irritation coming from the external environment or internal organs. All acts of unconscious and conscious mental life occur according to the reflex method.

Stage 4 - Psychology as a science that studies facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche - the modern stage of development of psychology is characterized by a variety of approaches to the essence of the psyche, the transformation of psychology into a multidisciplinary, applied field of knowledge that takes into account the interests of practice.

The psyche is a property of highly organized matter (the brain), which consists in actively reflecting the objective world, in constructing a picture of the world and self-regulation on this basis of one’s behavior and activities. An objective criterion of the psyche is the ability of living organisms to respond to neutral stimuli (during drought, animals move closer to a body of water, hearing the sound of cars, they move away, away from the noise)

The subject of general psychology is the patterns of development and manifestation of mental processes, mental states, mental properties, mental formations.

The subject of psychology is the human psyche:

- mental processes - cognitive, emotional, volitional;

- mental states - vigor, fatigue, euphoria, stress, panic, etc.;

- mental education - knowledge, abilities, skills, habits;

- mental properties (personal properties) - temperament, character, abilities, needs, interests, orientation.

The main task of psychology is the study of the laws of human mental activity.

The laws of psychology show:

- how a person perceives the objective world around him, how it is reflected in the human brain;

-how human mental activity develops;

-how the mental properties of a person are formed.

They are necessary for the formation of high human qualities in people. The main object of research is a person, his mental processes, states and properties.

Additional literature:

R. Gottsdanker “Fundamentals of psychological experiment”

V. Dilthey “Descriptive psychology”

Ticket No. 2: Methods of psychological science

Methods of psychology are a set of methods and techniques for studying mental phenomena.

Psychology methods:

1. Organizational (determine the way of organizing psychological research):

— comparative — comparison of different groups by age, activity, etc.

- longitudinal - repeated examinations of the same individuals over a long period

— comprehensive — representatives of different sciences take part in the study

2. Empirical (methods of collecting primary information):

- observation (consisting in the systematic and purposeful perception and recording of mental phenomena in certain conditions (studies memory, attention, thinking, character, abilities);

- experiment (the researcher systematically manipulates one or several factors and records the accompanying changes in the manifestation of the phenomenon being studied. 2 types: laboratory (in specially organized conditions, using instruments), natural (special conditions, but close to natural, for example, in a classroom lesson) ;

-testing (a special task that allows you to quickly assess the corresponding mental phenomenon and the level of its development in the subject).

Types of tests:

1. according to the form of conduct - individual, group

2. by purpose - for selection, for distribution, for classification

3. according to the characteristic being studied - intelligence tests; achievement tests; personality tests (questionnaires, projective, situational)

- questioning (the child’s personality - his inclinations, interests, character, cognitive processes - perception, ideas, imagination, thinking; - questions must be thought out in advance)

- analysis of the products of activity (when studying mainly the personality of the child - his inclinations, interests, character, cognitive processes, questions must be thought out in advance)

biographical method

3. Data processing (allows for quantitative processing of primary information):

— quantitative — methods of statistical processing of information

— qualitative — differentiation of material into groups, analysis

4. Interpretive (various methods of explaining patterns identified as a result of static processing of data and comparing them with previously established facts):

— genetic — analysis of material in terms of development, highlighting individual phases, stages, etc.

-structural - establishing structural connections between all characteristics of the phenomenon being studied

5. Influences (corrections) - methods of influencing mental phenomena in order to change them in accordance with the stated goal:

— auto-training, group training, psychotherapy, role-playing games, hypnosis, psychoanalysis.

Auxiliary technique - 6. self-observation - a person himself observes the course of certain mental processes in himself (for example, he tells how he thinks when solving a mathematical problem).

E.E. Sokolova “General Psychology”

S.L. Rubinstein “Fundamentals of General Psychology”

Types of imagination

according to the degree of arbitrariness or intentionality.

· Voluntary (recreative imagination, creative imagination and dream.)

Involuntary (dreams)

By degree of activity:

· Passive imagination can be intentional (dreams) or unintentional (hallucinations).

· Active (associated with volitional manifestations of a person)

Imagination and creativity

Creativity is closely related to all mental processes, including imagination.

Thus, the English scientist G. Wallace made an attempt to study the creative process. As a result, he was able to identify four stages of the creative process:

1. Preparation (idea generation).

2. Maturation (the development of knowledge directly and indirectly related to a given problem, obtaining missing information).

3. Insight (intuitive grasp of the desired result).

4. Check.

Recommended reading

Brushlinsky A.V.

Imagination and creativity // Scientific creativity. - M.: Nauka, 1969.

Vygotsky L. S.

Imagination and its development in childhood // Reader on psychology. - M.: Education, 1987.

Granovskaya R. M.

Elements of practical psychology.
- St. Petersburg: Light, 1997. 5. Dyachenko O. M.
Imagination of a preschooler. - M.: Knowledge, 1986.

Ticket No. 7. Attention and its properties.

Concept of attention

Attention is the direction and concentration of mental activity on something specific.

Attention, how the mental process relates to cognitive processes. The forms of attention are varied. It can be aimed at the work of the senses (visual, auditory, olfactory attention), at the processes of memorization, thinking, and at motor activity.

Basic properties of attention.

· control and regulation of activities. (the reflection becomes clear, distinct, ideas and thoughts are retained in consciousness until the activity is completed, until its goal is achieved.

· Stability – the duration of attracting attention to the same object or to the same task.

· Concentration of attention – increasing signal intensity when the field of perception is limited. Concentration offers not only long-term retention of attention on an object, but also distraction from all other influences that are not important to the subject at the moment.

· Concentration of attention is manifested as a result of concentrating consciousness on an object in order to obtain the most complete information about it.

· Distribution of attention is the subjectively experienced ability of a person to keep a certain number of heterogeneous objects in the center of attention at the same time.

· Switchability is the speed of transition from one type of activity to another (absent-mindedness - poor switchability)

· The subjectivity of attention is associated with the ability to highlight certain complexes of signals in accordance with the task at hand, personal significance, relevance of signals, etc.

· The scope of attention is characterized by the number of objects to which the subject can direct and focus attention in a split second. The amount of attention is determined using special tachistoscope devices. In an instant, a person can pay attention to only a few objects (from 4 to 6).

Types of attention:

Sensory attention occurs when objects act on the senses. It provides a clear reflection of objects and their properties in the sensations and perceptions of a person. Thanks to sensory attention, the images of objects that appear in the mind are clear and distinct. Sensory attention can be visual, auditory, olfactory , etc. Basically, a person exhibits visual and auditory attention. Visual attention is the best studied in psychology because it is easy to detect and record.

Motor attention is directed to movements and actions performed by a person. It makes it possible to more clearly and clearly understand the techniques and methods used in practical activities. Motor attention regulates and controls movements and actions aimed at an object, especially in cases where they must be particularly clear and precise.

Intellectual attention is aimed at more efficient functioning of such cognitive processes as: memory, imagination and thinking. Thanks to this attention, a person remembers and reproduces information better, creates clearer images of the imagination, and thinks clearly and productively. Since this attention is internal in nature and is little accessible for research, it is the least studied in psychology.

Intentional (voluntary) attention occurs when the subject has a goal or task to be attentive to some external object or to an internal mental action. It is mainly aimed at regulating external sensory and motor actions and internal cognitive processes. Intentional attention can become voluntary when the subject needs to show volitional effort in order to direct and focus attention on an object that needs to be cognized or with which to act.

If the direction and concentration of attention are associated with a conscious goal, we are talking about voluntary attention. N. F. Dobrynin identified another type of attention - post-voluntary attention (this is attention that naturally accompanies the activity of the individual; it arises if the individual is absorbed in the activity; it is associated with the existing system of associations). This may occur when the goal of paying attention remains, but volitional efforts disappear. Such attention begins to manifest itself when activities that require volitional efforts become exciting and are carried out without much difficulty.

Unintentional (involuntary) attention arises by itself without any purpose on the part of the person. It is caused by properties and qualities of objects and phenomena of the external world that are significant for a person. One of these properties is the novelty of the object.

Functions of attention.

The main functions of attention are ensuring the selectivity of cognitive processes, the purposefulness of human activity and its activation. Thanks to the selectivity of cognitive processes, a person deals only with the information that at a given moment in time plays the most important role for him.

focus

the selective nature of mental activity, the intentional or unintentional choice of its objects. The concept of direction also includes the preservation of activity for a certain period of time.

concentration,

depth in activity.
The more difficult the task facing a person, the more intense, intense, and in-depth his attention will be, and, conversely, the easier the task, the less in-depth his attention will be. control and regulation of activities.
When the reflection becomes clear and distinct, ideas and thoughts are retained in consciousness until the activity is completed, until its goal is achieved.

Recommended reading

1. Vygotsky L. S.

Collected works: In 6 volumes. T. 2: Questions of general psychology, 1982.

2. Galperin P. Ya., Kabylnitskaya S. L.

Experimental formation of attention. - M., 1974.

3. Luria A. R.

Attention and memory. - M., 1975.

4. Pavlov I. II.

Complete works of the USSR, 1952.

Basic features of memory

The most important features, integral characteristics of memory, are: duration, speed (memorization and reproduction), accuracy, readiness, volume.

How productive a person’s memory is depends on these characteristics. These memory traits will be mentioned later in this work, but for now here is a brief description of them:

1. Volume - the ability to simultaneously store a significant amount of information. The average memory size is 7 elements (units) of information.

2. Speed ​​of memorization - varies from person to person. The speed of memorization can be increased with the help of special memory training.

3. Accuracy - Accuracy is reflected in the recall of facts and events that a person has encountered, as well as in the recall of the content of information. This trait is very important in learning.

4. Duration - the ability to preserve the experience for a long time. Also a very individual quality: some people can remember the faces and names of school friends many years later, some forget them after just a few years. The duration of memory is selective.

5. Readiness for reproduction - the ability to quickly reproduce information in the human mind. It is thanks to this ability that we can effectively use previously acquired experience.

Basic memory processes

· Memorization

- Represents the imprinting and consolidation of any experience.

· Storage

- means the presence of information, which is not always associated with its accessibility to consciousness

· Playback

is responsible for retrieving information from the storage block. Its activity is carried out through “recognition”, “reproduction”, “remembering”.

· Recognition

genetically earlier manifestation of memory. This is the reproduction of the image of an object or phenomenon under the conditions of its repeated perception. To recognize is to recognize, that is, recognition is an act of cognition. Reproduction differs from recognition in that it is carried out without re-perceiving the object that is being reproduced.

Material reconstruction

· Reminiscence is the fact of improving delayed reproduction, that is, the recollection of initially forgotten material.

· Forgetting

. The forgetting block is also defined as relatively independent. The mechanism and causes of forgetting are still being explained at the level of debate. German psychologist

Types and forms of memory

There are different classifications of types of human memory:

1. Classification according to the participation of the will in the process of memorization;
2. Classification according to mental activity, which predominates in activity.
3. By the duration of information storage;
4. The essence of the subject and the method of memorization.

1. According to the nature of the fate of the will

memory is divided into involuntary and voluntary

.

1) Involuntary memory means remembering and reproducing automatically, without any effort. In this case, memorization occurs without any effort, “automatically.”

2) Voluntary memory refers to cases where a specific task is present and volitional efforts are used to remember.

In this type of memory, the goal . It has been proven that material that is interesting to a person and that is of great importance is involuntarily remembered.

2. By the nature of mental activity

Based on the nature of mental activity with the help of which a person remembers information, memory can be divided into motor, emotional (affective), and figurative. and verbal-logical.

In turn, figurative memory is divided according to the type of analyzers that are involved in memorizing impressions by a person. Figurative memory can be visual. auditory, olfactory, tactile and gustatory...

1) Motor (kinetic) memory - remembering and storing, and, if necessary, reproducing a variety of complex movements. This memory is actively involved in the development of motor (labor, sports) skills and abilities. All manual movements of a person are associated with this type of memory. This memory manifests itself in a person first, and is extremely necessary for the normal development of a child.

2) Emotional memory - memory for experiences. This type of memory is especially evident in human relationships. As a rule, what causes emotional experiences in a person is remembered by him without much difficulty and for a long time. As already mentioned, pleasant events are more firmly deposited in memory than unpleasant ones. This type of memory plays an important role in human motivation, and this memory manifests itself very early: about 6 months.

3) Verbal-logical memory is a type of memorization when the word, thought, and logic play a large role in the memorization process. In this case, a person tries to understand the information being acquired, clarify the terminology, establish all the semantic connections in the text, and only after that remember the material. It is easier for people with developed verbal-logical memory to remember verbal, abstract material, concepts, and formulas. This type of memory, in combination with auditory memory, is possessed by scientists, experienced lecturers, university professors, etc. Logical memory, when trained, gives very good results, and is much more effective than just mechanical memorization. Some researchers believe that this memory is formed and begins to “work” later than others. P.P. Bonsky called it “memory-story”. A child already has it at 3-4 years old, when the very foundations of logic begin to develop. Develops as the child learns the basics of science.

4) Figurative memory - associated with remembering and reproducing sensory images of objects and phenomena, their properties, and relationships between them. This memory begins to manifest itself by the age of 2 years, and reaches its highest point by adolescence. Images can be different: a person remembers both images of different objects and a general idea of ​​them, with some abstract content. Various analyzers help you remember images. Different people have more active different analyzers, but as was said at the beginning of the work, most people have better developed visual memory.

· Visual memory - associated with the preservation and reproduction of visual images. People with developed visual memory usually have a well-developed imagination and are able to “see” information even when it no longer affects the senses. It is very important for people of certain professions: artists, engineers, composers. The previously mentioned eidetic vision, or phenomenal memory , is also characterized by strong imagery.

· Auditory memory is a good memorization and accurate reproduction of various sounds: speech, music. Such memory is especially necessary when learning foreign languages, musicians

· Tactile, olfactory and gustatory memory is an example of memory (there are other types that will not be mentioned) that does not play a significant role in human life, the capabilities of such memory are very limited and its role is to satisfy the biological needs of the body. They develop especially acutely only in people of certain professions.

3. By the duration of information storage;

1) Instantaneous or iconic memory This memory retains material that has just been received by the senses, without any processing of information.

The
duration of this memory is from 0.1 to 0.5 s.
Often in this case, a person remembers information without conscious effort, even against his will. This is a memory-image. This memory manifests itself in children even in preschool age, but over the years its importance for a person increases.

2) Short-term memory - storing information for a short period of time: on average about 20 s.

This type of memorization can occur after a single or very brief perception.
This memory also works without conscious effort to remember, but with the intention of future reproduction. The most essential elements of the perceived image are stored in memory. Short-term memory “turns on” when the so-called actual consciousness of a person operates (i.e., what is realized by a person and somehow correlates with his current interests and needs).
The volume of short-term memory is very individual, and there are developed formulas and methods for its measurements. In this regard, it is necessary to talk about such a feature of it as the property of substitution . When an individual's memory capacity becomes full, new information partially replaces what is stored there, and old information often disappears forever. A good example would be the difficulty in remembering the abundance of surnames and first names of people we have just met. A person is able to retain in short-term memory no more names than his memory capacity allows.

3) Random access memory - memory designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period. The storage period for information ranges from a few seconds to several days.

. After solving the task, information may disappear from RAM. A good example would be the information that a student is trying to absorb during an exam: the time frame and task are clearly defined. After passing the exam, there is again complete “amnesia” on this issue. This type of memory is, as it were, transitional, from short-term to long-term, since it includes elements of both memory.

4) Long-term memory - memory capable of storing information for an unlimited period of time

.

Recommended reading

Atkinson R.

Human memory and the learning process M.: Progress, 1980.

Rubinshtein S. L.

Fundamentals of general psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 1999.

Smirnov A. A.

Problems of the psychology of memory. - M, 1966.

General concept of personality

Personality is a specific person, taken in the system of his stable socially conditioned psychological characteristics, which manifest themselves in social connections and relationships, determine his moral actions and are of significant importance for himself and those around him.

B. G. Ananyev identified four levels of human organization that are of greatest interest for scientific research. These included the individual, subject of activity, personality, individuality.

In psychological science, the categories man, individual, personality, and individuality are among the basic categories. They are not purely psychological and are studied by all social sciences. Therefore, the question arises about the specifics of the study of these categories by psychology: all mental phenomena are formed and developed in activity and communication, but they belong not to these processes, but to their subject - the social individual , the personality .

The problem of personality in psychology also appears as an independent one. The most important theoretical task is to discover the objective foundations of those psychological properties that characterize a person as an individual, as an individual and as a personality. A person is born into the world already a human being.

The concept of man is the broadest. This is the accepted classical scientifically generalized name for a special type of living being - “reasonable man”, or homo sapiens. This concept combines everything: natural, biochemical, social, medical, etc.

Individual is a category indicating membership in the human race. This concept expresses a person’s gender identity, i.e. every person is an individual. This is an emphasis on singularity (as opposed to a person) and indivisibility (as opposed to a person).

The individual emphasizes the biological in a person, but does not exclude the social components inherent in the human race. A person is born as a specific individual, but, having become a person, he does not cease to be an individual at the same time.

Personality is a person who develops in society and interacts and communicates with other people through language.

This is a person as a member of society, the result of formation, development and socialization. But what has been said does not mean that a person is only a social being, devoid of biological characteristics. In personality psychology, the social and biological exist in unity. It is possible to understand what a person is only through the study of real social connections and relationships into which a person enters. It is not for nothing that S. L. Rubinstein said that all psychology is the psychology of personality. At the same time, the categories “person” and “personality” are not synonymous. The latter determines the social orientation of a person who becomes an individual, provided that he develops in society (for example, in contrast to “wild children”), interacts with other people (in contrast to those who are deeply ill from birth). Every normal person has several personal manifestations depending on which part of society he is projected onto at the moment: family, work, study, friendship. At the same time, the personality is holistic and unified, systemic and organized.

In psychology, there are other, narrower interpretations of the understanding of personality, when they highlight certain qualities that supposedly act as integral attributes for it. Here it is proposed to consider only someone, for example, who is independent, responsible, and highly developed, as a person. Such criteria are usually subjective and difficult to prove.

Individuality is a category that emphasizes the uniqueness, originality and independence of each psyche (personality, individual, person).

The specificity of social conditions of life and a person’s way of activity determines the characteristics of his individual characteristics and properties. All people have certain mental traits, views, customs and feelings, each of us has differences in the cognitive sphere of personality, which will determine our individuality.

The psychological structure of a personality is a holistic model, a system of qualities and properties that fully characterizes the psychological characteristics of a personality (person, individual).

All mental processes are carried out in a person, but not all act as its distinctive properties. Each of us is in some ways similar to all people, in some ways only like some, and in some ways unlike anyone else.

In psychology, there are a huge number of models of the psychological structure of personality, which stem from various theories about the psyche and personality, from different parameters and tasks. In our manual, we use a model of the psychological structure of personality, based on the combination of two schemes, developed first by S. L. Rubinstein and then by K. K. Platonov.

This basic model is based on the personal-activity approach. This structure includes six interconnected substructures. They are conventionally singled out only to obtain some scheme of a complete personality.

So, the following psychological components, or substructures, are distinguished in personality:

• self-awareness;
• personality orientation;
• temperament and character;
• mental processes and states;
• abilities and inclinations;
• mental experience of the individual.

Further, these substructures, which make up the substantive content of personality psychology, will be described in the following lectures and decomposed into individual components: processes, qualities, properties, etc.

Properties of temperament.

The properties of temperament include those distinctive individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamic aspects of all his types of activity, characterize the peculiarities of the course of mental processes, have a more or less stable nature, persist for a long time, appearing soon after birth (after the central the nervous system takes on specifically human forms). It is believed that the properties of temperament are determined mainly by the properties of the human nervous system, which we examined in the previous chapter of the textbook, discussing the problems of abilities.

Soviet psychophysiologist V.M. Rusalov, relying on a new concept of the properties of the nervous system, proposed on its basis a more modern interpretation of the properties of temperament. Based on the theory of the functional system P.K. Anokhin, including four blocks of storage, circulation and processing of information (block of afferent synthesis, programming (decision making), execution and feedback), Rusalov identified four associated properties of temperament, responsible for the breadth or narrowness of afferent synthesis (the degree of intensity of interaction of the body with environment), ease of switching from one behavior program to another, speed of execution of the current behavior program and sensitivity to the discrepancy between the Real result of an action and its acceptor.

In accordance with this, the traditional psychophysiological assessment of temperament changes and instead of two parameters - activity and sensitivity - it now includes four components: ergicity (endurance), plasticity, speed and emotionality (sensitivity). All these components of temperament, according to V.M. Rusalov, are biologically and genetically determined. Temperament depends on the properties of the nervous system, and they, in turn, are understood as the main characteristics of functional systems that provide integrative, analytical and synthetic activity of the brain and the entire nervous system as a whole.

Temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense that its properties are neither completely innate nor dependent on the environment. They, as the author puts it, represent a “systemic generalization” of the initially genetically specified individual biological properties of a person, which, “being included in a variety of activities, are gradually transformed and, regardless of the content of the activity itself, form a generalized, qualitatively new individually stable system of invariant properties "

In accordance with the two main types of human activity - objective activity and communication, each of the identified properties of temperament should be considered separately, since it is assumed that they manifest themselves differently in activity and communication.

One more circumstance characterizing the connection between temperament and the properties of the nervous system should be paid attention to. The psychological characteristics of temperament are not the properties of the nervous system themselves or their combination, but the typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties give rise to.

Let us consider these properties in relation to cognitive processes, objective activity and human communication. The corresponding properties include activity, productivity, excitability, inhibition and switchability.

The active side of perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking, respectively, is the extent to which a person is able to concentrate, concentrate his attention, imagination, memory and thinking on a certain object or its aspect. Pace is manifested in how quickly the corresponding mental processes work. For example, one person remembers, recalls, considers, imagines, thinks about solving a problem faster than another.

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Feel

Sensations are mental processes that are mental reflections of individual states and properties of the external world, arising from direct influence on the senses, a person’s subjective perception of external and internal stimuli with the participation of the nervous system. In psychology, sensations are usually understood as the process of reflecting various properties of objects in the surrounding world.

Sensations have the following properties:

• Modality is a qualitative indicator of sensations (for vision - color, saturation, for hearing - volume, timbre, etc.);
• Intensity is a quantitative indicator of sensations;
• Duration is a temporary indicator of sensations;
• Localization is a spatial indicator.

There are several classifications of sensations. The first of them belongs to Aristotle. They identified five basic senses: touch, hearing, sight, taste and smell. But in the 19th century, due to the increase in the types of sensations, the need for a more serious classification arose. Today there are the following classifications:

• Wundt's classification - depending on the mechanical, chemical and physical properties of stimuli;
• Sherrington classification - based on the location of receptors: exteroceptive, interoceptive and proprioceptive sensations;
• Head's classification - based on origin: protopathic and epicritic sensitivity.

Read more about sensations in the article “Sensation and Perception.”

Conversation as one of the most important scientific methods

General psychology is a multifaceted science. That is why one method has a huge number of different applications in practice.

Conversation is of the utmost importance in psychology. It is a direct or indirect collection of information about the person being interviewed. The information received can be recorded both in writing and orally. Due to subsequent processing of the information received, conclusions are drawn through careful analysis.

Conversations are also divided depending on the nature of the conversation. Thus, they include collecting information about a person, interviewing, when a person answers a pre-prepared list of questions, surveys and questionnaires. All of the above types have distinctive features, for example, when surveying, the interlocutor answers in writing.

As practice shows, the most effective method of collecting data is a personal conversation between the researcher and the subject. An atmosphere of trust is created, thanks to which the interlocutors feel comfortable and at ease. In order to collect the maximum amount of information, the person conducting the survey needs to prepare thoroughly. First, make a plan for the conversation and identify all the problems for which it is important to find a solution.

A conversation involves not only giving answers in a certain form, but also asking questions from the person being examined. As practice shows, the most complete information can be obtained as a result of a two-way conversation.

Perception

Perception is a cognitive process that forms the subject’s picture of the world. A mental operation that reflects an object or phenomenon that affects the receptors of the sense organs. Perception is a complex function that determines the reception and transformation of information and forms a subjective image of an object for the subject. Through attention, a whole object is discovered, its special features and content are highlighted, and a sensory image is formed, i.e. comprehension occurs.

Perception is divided into four levels:

• Detection (perceptual action) – image formation;
• Discrimination (perceptual action) is the perception of the image itself;
• Identification (recognition action) - identification of an object with existing images;
• Identification (identification action) – categorization of an object.

Perception also has its own properties: structure, objectivity, apperception, selectivity, constancy, meaningfulness. More information about perception can be found in the articles “Sensation and Perception” and “Mental Processes: Types and Brief Description.”

Attention

Attention is the selective perception of a particular object. It is expressed in how a person relates to an object. Attention can often be backed by such psychological characteristics of the individual as need, interest, focus, attitudes and others. Attention also determines how a person navigates the world around him and how this world is reflected in his psyche. The object of attention is always in the center of consciousness, and the rest is perceived more weakly. But the focus of attention tends to change.

The objects of attention are, as a rule, what has the greatest significance for a person at the moment. Maintaining attention for a long time on an object is called concentration.

Attention functions:

• Detection
• Selective attention
• Divided attention

Attention can be voluntary and involuntary. It differs in form into:

• External – aimed at the outside world;
• Internal – aimed at the inner world of a person;
• Motor

Properties of attention: direction, distribution, volume, intensity, concentration, switchability, stability.

All of them are closely related to human activities. And depending on its purpose, they can become more or less intense.

Read more about attention in our lesson “Attention and Memory” from the course on memory development.

Science subject

General and social psychology necessarily have their own subject. Thus, the main attention is focused on the following factors:

• mental activity;
• memory;
• character;
• thinking;
• temperament;
• emotions;
• perception;
• sensations and so on.

These phenomena are considered in close connection not only with human life, but also with the activities of the entire surrounding world. When studying this issue, great attention must be paid to a person’s belonging to a particular ethnic group, taking into account the historical prerequisites for its formation. Numerous cognitive processes occurring within a person are also subject to study. A special area of ​​psychology is interpersonal relationships in social groups of various sizes.

Representation

In the process of representation, mental reconstruction of images of phenomena or objects that do not currently affect the senses occurs. There are two meanings of this concept. The first denotes the image of a phenomenon or object that was previously perceived, but is not perceived now. The second describes the reproduction of images itself. As mental phenomena, ideas can be somewhat similar to perception, hallucinations and pseudohallucinations, or different from them.

Views are classified in several ways:

• According to leading analyzers: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile and temperature representations;
• According to the degree of generalization - single, general and schematized;
• By origin - based on perception, thinking or imagination;
• According to the degree of volitional efforts - involuntary and voluntary.

Representations have the following properties: generality, fragmentation, clarity, instability.

Read more about ideas in psychology in our article “Mental processes: types and brief characteristics.”

Memory

Memory is a mental function and a type of mental activity designed to preserve, accumulate and reproduce information. The ability to store data about events in the surrounding world and the body’s reactions for a long period of time, and use it.

The following memory processes are distinguished:

• Memorization;
• Storage;
• Play;
• Forgetting.

Memory is also divided into typologies:

• By sensory modality - visual, kinesthetic, sound, gustatory, pain;
• In terms of content – ​​emotional, figurative, motor;
• According to the organization of memorization - procedural, semantic, episodic;
• According to time characteristics – ultra-short-term, short-term, long-term;
• According to physiological characteristics - long-term and short-term;
• According to the availability of funds - non-mediated and indirect;
• According to the presence of a goal - involuntary and voluntary;
• According to the level of development - verbal-logical, figurative, emotional and motor.

You will find ways and techniques for developing memory in a separate training on our website.

Imagination

Imagination is the ability of a person’s consciousness to create and manage ideas, ideas and images. It plays a major role in mental processes such as planning, modeling, play, memory and creativity. This is the basis of a person’s visual-figurative thinking, which allows him to solve certain problems and understand the situation without practical intervention. A type of imagination is fantasy.

There is also a classification of imagination:

• By degree of direction - active and passive imagination;
• According to the results - reproductive and creative imagination;
• By type of images – abstract and concrete;
• According to the degree of volitional effort - unintentional and intentional;
• Techniques: typification, schematization, hyperbolization, agglutination.

Mechanisms of imagination:

• Typing;
• Accenting;
• Schematization;
• Agglutination;
• Hyperbolization.

Imagination is directly related to creativity. Sensitivity to emerging problems, ease of combining things, and observation skills contribute to finding creative solutions. The characteristics of imagination can be considered accuracy, originality, flexibility and fluency of thinking.

Read more about imagination in psychology in the article “Mental processes: types and brief description.” In addition, the lesson “Development of Creative Imagination” from our course on creative thinking is devoted to the problems of developing imagination.

Thinking

In general psychology there are many definitions of the thinking process. According to one of the most popular definitions:

Thinking is the highest stage of human information processing and the process of establishing connections between phenomena and objects of the external world.

It is the highest level of human cognition, as a process of reflection of the surrounding reality in his brain.

Thinking is divided into:

• Abstract-logical;
• Visual-figurative;
• Specific subject;
• Visually effective.

And the main forms of thinking are:

• Concept – thoughts that highlight and generalize phenomena and objects;
• Judgment - denial or affirmation of something;
• Inference - conclusion.

These and other components of the thinking process are discussed in our logical thinking training.

Speech

Speech is a form of communication between people through linguistic structures. In this process, thoughts are formed and formulated using language, and the received speech information is perceived and understood. Speech is a form of existence of human language, because. speech is language in action.

Language (speech) performs the following functions:

• A tool for intellectual activity;
• Method of communication;
• A way of existence, as well as the assimilation and transfer of experience.

Speech is the most important part of human activity, which contributes to knowledge of the world around us and the transfer of knowledge and experience to others. Being a means of expressing thoughts, it is one of the main mechanisms of human thinking. It depends on the form of communication and is thus divided into oral (speaking/listening) and written (writing/reading).

Speech has the following properties:

• Content – ​​the number and significance of expressed aspirations, feelings and thoughts;
• Clarity – correctness;
• Expressiveness – emotional coloring and richness of language;
• Effectiveness is the influence exerted on other people, their feelings, thoughts, emotions, etc.

You can read more about speaking and writing in our trainings on public speaking and writing.

Concept of character. In psychology, the concept of character (from the Greek

In psychology, the concept of character (from the Greek chararter - “seal”, “minting”) means a set of stable individual characteristics of a person that develop and manifest themselves in activity and communication, determining typical behavior patterns for it.

Knowing a person’s character makes it possible, with a significant degree of probability, to anticipate and thereby correct expected actions and actions.

Not all human features can be considered characteristic, but only essential ones.

and
sustainable
.

If a person is not polite enough in a stressful situation, this does not mean that rudeness and lack of restraint are a property of his character. Sometimes, even very cheerful people can feel sad, but this will not make them pessimists.

Acting as a person’s lifetime education, character is determined and formed throughout a person’s life

. The way of life includes the way of thoughts, feelings, motives, actions in their unity. Therefore, as a certain way of life of a person is formed, the person himself is formed.

A big role here is played by social conditions and specific life circumstances in which a person’s life path takes place, based on his natural properties and as a result of his actions and actions.

However, the actual formation of character occurs in groups of different levels of development (family, friendly company, class, sports team, work team, etc.). Depending on which group is the reference

and what values ​​it supports and cultivates in its environment, corresponding character traits will develop in its members.

Character traits will also depend on the individual's position in the group

, on how it is integrated into it. In a team as a group of a high level of development, the most favorable opportunities are created for the development of the best character traits. This process is mutual, and thanks to the development of the individual, the team itself develops.

The content of character, reflecting social influences, influences, constitutes the life orientation of the individual

, i.e. her material and spiritual needs, interests, beliefs, ideals, etc. The orientation of the individual determines the goals, life plan of a person, and the degree of his life activity. The character of a person presupposes the presence of something significant for him in the world, in life, something on which the motives of his actions, the goals of his actions, the tasks that he sets for himself depend.

Crucial for understanding character is the relationship between what is socially and personally significant for a person.

. Every society has its own most important and essential tasks. It is on them that the character of people is formed and tested. Therefore, the concept of “character” refers to a greater extent to the relationship of these objectively existing tasks.

Character is not just any manifestation of firmness, perseverance, etc. (formal persistence may simply be stubbornness), but a focus on socially significant activities. It is the orientation of the individual that underlies unity, integrity, and strength of character.

Having goals in life is the main condition for character formation.

A characterless person is characterized by the absence or scattering of goals (E.I. Rogov). However, the character and orientation of a person are not the same thing. Both a decent, highly moral person and a person with low, unscrupulous thoughts can be good-natured and cheerful. The orientation of the individual leaves an imprint on all human behavior. Although behavior is determined not by one impulse, but by an integral system of relationships, in this system something always comes to the fore, dominating it, giving a person’s character a unique flavor.

In a formed character, the leading component is the belief system

. Conviction determines the long-term direction of a person’s behavior, his inflexibility in achieving his goals, confidence in the justice and importance of the work he is doing.

Character traits are closely related to interests

person, provided that these interests are stable and deep. Superficiality and instability of interests are often associated with great imitation, with a lack of independence and integrity of a person’s personality. And, conversely, the depth and content of interests indicate the purposefulness and perseverance of the individual.

A person’s attachments and interests related to his leisure time

. They reveal new features, facets of character: for example, L.N. Tolstoy was fond of playing chess, I.P. Pavlov - towns, D.I. Mendeleev - reading adventure novels.

Whether a person’s spiritual and material needs and interests dominate is determined not only by the thoughts and feelings of the individual, but also by his direction of activity

. No less important is the correspondence of a person’s actions to the goals set, since a person is characterized not only by what he does, but also by how he does it. Character can only be understood as a certain unity of direction and course of action.

Character traits, having a certain motivating force, are clearly manifested in the situation of choosing actions or methods of behavior. achievement motivation can be considered as a character trait.

- his needs to achieve success.

Depending on this, some people are characterized by a choice of actions that ensure success (showing initiative, competitive activity, risk-taking, etc.), while others are more likely to simply avoid failures (deviation from risk and responsibility, avoidance manifestations of activity, initiative, etc.).

Emotions

Emotions are mental processes that reflect the subject’s attitude to possible or real situations. Emotions should not be confused with such emotional processes as feelings, affects and moods. To date, emotions have been poorly studied and are understood differently by many experts. For this reason, the definition given above cannot be considered the only correct one.

Characteristics of emotions are:

• Tone (valence) – positive or negative emotions;
• Intensity – strong or weak emotions;
• Stenicity – influence on human activity: sthenic (inducing action) and asthenic (reducing activity);
• Content – ​​reflects different facets of the meaning of situations that arouse emotions.

Emotions in most cases manifest themselves in physiological reactions, because the latter depend on them. But today there is debate about the fact that intentional physiological states can cause certain emotions.

These and other issues of understanding and managing emotions are discussed in our acting training.

Will

Will is the ability of a person to consciously control his psyche and actions. The achievement of set goals and results can be considered a manifestation of will. It has many positive qualities that influence the success of human activity. The main volitional qualities are considered to be persistence, courage, patience, independence, focus, determination, initiative, endurance, courage, self-control and others. Will encourages action, allows a person to manage desires and realize them, develops self-control and strength of character.

Signs of an act of will:

• Efforts of will in many cases are aimed at overcoming one’s weaknesses;
• Performing any action without receiving pleasure from this process;
• Availability of an action plan;
• Putting effort into doing something.

Read more about will in psychology in the articles “Mental processes: types and brief description” and “Will and volitional actions.”

Mental properties and states

Mental properties are stable mental phenomena that influence what a person does and give his socio-psychological characteristics. The structure of mental properties includes abilities, character, temperament and orientation.

Orientation is a conglomerate of needs, goals and motives of a person that determine the nature of his activities. It expresses the whole meaning of a person’s actions and his worldview.

Temperament gives characteristics to a person’s activity and behavior. It can manifest itself in increased sensitivity, emotionality, resistance to stress, the ability to adapt to external conditions or the lack thereof, etc.

Character is a set of traits and qualities that are regularly manifested in a person. There are always individual characteristics, but there are also characteristics that are characteristic of all people - purposefulness, initiative, discipline, activity, determination, perseverance, endurance, courage, will, etc.

Abilities are the mental properties of a person, reflecting his characteristics, which allow a person to successfully engage in certain types of activities. Abilities are distinguished between special (for a specific type of activity) and general (for most types of activity).

Mental states are a system of psychological characteristics that provide a person’s subjective perception of the world around him. Mental states influence how mental processes proceed, and when regularly repeated, they can become part of a person’s personality - its property.

Mental states are related to each other. But they can still be classified. The most common ones are:

• Personality states;
• States of consciousness;
• States of intelligence.

Types of mental states are divided according to the following criteria:

• According to the source of formation - conditioned by the situation or personally;
• According to the degree of expression - superficial and deep;
• By emotional coloring – positive, neutral and negative;
• By duration – short-term, medium-duration, long-term;
• According to the degree of awareness - conscious and unconscious;
• According to the level of manifestation - physiological, psychophysiological, psychological.

The following mental states are common to most people:

• Optimal performance;
• Tension;
• Interest;
• Inspiration;
• Fatigue;
• Monotony;
• Stress;
• Relaxation;
• Dream;
• Wakefulness.

Other common mental states include love, anger, fear, surprise, admiration, depression, detachment and others.

Read more about mental properties and states in the article “Properties of Mental States.”

Basic concepts of general psychology

The subject of general psychology is identical to the universal subject of psychological science as a whole. It is the mental (spiritual) plane of individual life as something unified and continuous, holistic and internally dismembered, non-renewable and stable. In the dynamics of mental life, the constancy of the general function of a living person is revealed: “to be in a mental connection with the world.” And in the process of implementing this function, the “mental” acquires the ability to be the property and potency of the individual.

The initial task of general psychology is the study of the relations of the psyche, addressed to the world, the individual in his life activity, to himself and, accordingly, refracted through the “object”, “subject” and “mental core” of the individual. Relationships are considered here as objective, subjective and intrapsychic. This distinction looks rather conditional if we remember the natural continuity of the world - individual - life, the individual - living - in the world and the mental way - individual - life. At the same time, modeling allows for some rigidity of definitions, and its most important step is to find the most essential contents, determining factors and forms of mental relationships. This means defining the basic concepts of general psychology.

Mental is a way of inner life, correlation with the world and mastering it, a way of self-expression and creativity of an individual in the world. The specificity of the psyche is given in direct experience; his knowledge is expressed rather in hypotheses than in explanations; self-knowledge of the psyche produces effects of astonishing depth.

Reality is the world taken as a condition of existence and a potential given for all individuals. A characteristic of the world—reality—is its ability and willingness to be involved in the activity, activity, and behavior of individuals.

Reality is the world realized and mastered by a specific person, which is recognized and verified by him as existing-for-me. The reality of the world is experienced by the individual in the presence of two main points: the internal establishment of the identity of the world-for-me and the world-for-others, as well as the establishment of one’s own ability to influence the world and change it.

Unreality is a breakthrough into the experience of individuality of the contents of the transcendental world, which opens up as outside - human, impossible for ordinary cognition, not subject to mastery and subjective influence. Appearance is the introduction into the reality lived here and now of elements of individual internal experience, involuntarily projected into the external world and closed for living by others present. Givenness is the mental form of individual modeling of the world and life connections with it. The mental reality of the world is not just “there in the individual,” but is determined, created, and enriched by him. A mental reality can be attributed to the “I”, that is, conscious, or it can remain unconscious.

Representation is the capture by the individual’s consciousness of mental data in their relative separation and differentiated unity. This “givenness of the given” does not cover either the entire reality of individual life, or all the external and internal capabilities of the individual.

Determination of the psyche is a variety of influences on the psyche of the “other” with the effect of its special presence in mental properties, states and forms. There are factors that determine the origin, functioning, course, content, qualitative features and expressions of the psyche. There are genetic and causal determinants, determinants - conditions and determinants - driving forces, determinants of growth and regression. All of them conditionally belong either to the world, or to the bodily organization of the individual, or to his vital activity, or to the individual’s unified psyche itself, or to its relatively autonomous forms. In order to emphasize the influences on the psyche emanating from the “subjective whole” of the individual, the concept of self-determination is introduced.

The material world is the world of objects that do not have the property of life, but are involved in human life, where they are transformed, created and determine it.

The living world is a single plant-animal environment that has for a person the dignity of the conditions, goals and values ​​of his life.

The social world is a community of people who are given to a specific person as “others” and at the same time as “us”.

The ideal world is a pan-human experience of discovery, reconstruction, continuous search for the truth and value of existing things. Given to individuals in the forms of ideas, symbolic images, universal feelings, universal life relationships. The “collectivity” of the ideal is retained and transmitted to the individual by means of conscious culture (in images, symbols, signs, texts, etc.) as well as in an unconscious, archetypal way.

Individual existence is the life of an individual, taken both as an anonymous moment of all-human existence and as a unique event in it. It has several plans, of which the greatest attention of psychologists is attracted by the mental, effective - behavioral, productive, social, natural, transcendental.

Life time is a dimension of individual existence that exists in three main forms: in the form of duration, sequence, simultaneity of objective life events (objective time); in the form of a deep, perceived, but indivisible duration of the psychic "flow" (pure psychic or internal time); in the form of consciousness and reflection of duration, sequence of events of mental life (subjective, reflective time).

The structure of the psyche is the inclusion in the psyche as a whole of various elements, components, levels, etc. It is characterized by: the formality and stability of the relationships of the elements within the whole; subordination of individual mental processes, functions, qualities to general formative and directing principles. The most traditional is the structural distinction in the psyche of incentive, cognitive, emotional, volitional, expressive and behavioral phenomena. Their interpenetration and relative autonomy in the life process are determined by the integrative and separative forces of the unconscious and consciousness, “self” and “I”.

A mental phenomenon is a manifestation of the mental whole in single moments of motivation, cognition, experience, expression of will, and action. The concept of a phenomenon emphasizes not so much the complexity of mental phenomena, but also their belonging to a unique concrete life, the subjective significance, and eventfulness of its fragments. The “phenomenality” of mental life is associated with its awareness, although it does not exclude the extraconscious plane of a single mental event. Any mental phenomenon or process is defined as a phenomenon if we apply the method of holistic, in-depth understanding and interpretation to it.

The mental whole is the attribution of lived mental events to the continuously evolving center of individuality. In dynamic connection with it, the constancy of mental tendencies and qualities is maintained, the diverse unity of the individual is established and consolidated: physical-mental, conscious, social, spiritual. In the holistic center, its various “hypostases” are revealed: the primary natural “soul”, the unconscious “self”, the conscious “I”, the social-normative “super-ego”, the highest “spiritual authority”. What is important is the emphasis on the mutual inclusion and simultaneity of the action of various hypostases, their contradictions and the possibility of disintegration, for example, separation of the “I”.

Individuality is a person as having a unique connection of all-human potentials of being, uniquely realizing them, acquiring in this process the quality of singularity and capable of creativity, authorship in being. Individuality develops while being within a community that is open to it, replenishing this community, finding a place in it that cannot be replaced by anyone else.

Subject is a person as capable of influencing the existence of others, active in this existence, leaving a creative mark in it; opening up the possibility of self-determination and self-realization in connection with other people. One of the leading subjective authorities determines the conscious “I” or “ego” of the individual, which turns his initiatives and activities into understandable and meaningful for others.

Personality - a person as carrying ideas and realizing life relationships common with other people, discovering and maintaining his belonging to “we”, accepting his identity with the “other” as a value, expanding the possibilities of the collective-in-itself. “Personality” in general psychology also denotes the internal integrity of the individual, his stable qualitative certainty, depending on lifetime social generalization and self-generalization of individual ideas, desires, intentions, feelings, images, symbols.

The bearer of the psyche is a person who has the unity of bodily, subjective, personal and individual principles. They are formed through active mental mediation, simultaneously giving mental life and each of its individual moments natural, subjective, personal and individual features.

The above concepts are usually used in all areas of theoretical psychology and are developed in the border area of ​​“philosophical psychology” or “individual philosophy”. From this same area we can extract the principle of organization of the psyche, which sets the logic of structuring general psychology, the concept of elements and the whole of the mental structure, which complement the list outlined above, as well as a cross-cutting methodological approach to the consideration of specific general psychological topics.

Motivation

Motivation is the drive to perform an action. This process controls human behavior and determines its direction, stability, activity and organization. Thanks to motivation, a person can satisfy his needs.

There are several types of motivation:

• External – due to external conditions;
• Internal – due to internal circumstances (content of activity);
• Positive – based on positive incentives;
• Negative – based on negative incentives;
• Sustainable – determined by human needs;
• Unstable - requires additional incentive.

Motivation can be of the following types:

• From something (basic type);
• To something (basic type);
• Individual;
• Group;
• Cognitive.

There are certain motives that in most cases guide people:

• Self-affirmation;
• Identification with other people;
• Power;
• Self-development;
• Achieving something;
• Social significance;
• The desire to be in the company of certain people;
• Negative factors.

Motivation issues are discussed in more detail in the fourth lesson of this course, as well as in the article “How Motivation Works.”

Temperament and character

Temperament is a complex of mental characteristics of a personality associated with its dynamic characteristics (that is, with tempo, rhythm, intensity of individual mental processes and states). The basis of character formation.

The following main types of temperament are distinguished:

• Phlegmatic – signs: emotional stability, perseverance, calmness, regularity;
• Choleric – signs: frequent mood swings, emotionality, imbalance;
• Sanguine – signs: liveliness, mobility, productivity;
• Melancholic – signs: impressionability, vulnerability.

Different types of temperament have different properties that can have a positive or negative impact on a person's personality. Temperament type does not affect abilities, but it does affect how people express themselves in life. Depending on temperament there are:

• Perception, thinking, attention and other mental processes;
• Stability and plasticity of mental phenomena;
• Pace and rhythm of actions;
• Emotions, will and other mental properties;
• Direction of mental activity.

Character is a complex of permanent mental properties of a person that determine his behavior. Character traits form the properties of a person that determine his lifestyle and behavior.

Personality traits vary across groups. There are four in total:

• Attitude towards people - respect, sociability, callousness, etc.;
• Attitude to activity – conscientiousness, diligence, responsibility, etc.;
• Attitude towards oneself – modesty, arrogance, self-criticism, selfishness, etc.;
• Attitude to things - care, accuracy, etc.

Each person has a character unique to him, the properties and characteristics of which are determined, for the most part, by social factors. There is also always an accentuation of character - strengthening of its individual traits. It should also be noted that there is a close relationship between character and temperament, because temperament influences the development of certain character traits and the manifestation of its characteristics, and at the same time, using some of its character traits, a person, if necessary, can control the manifestations of his temperament.

Read more about character and temperament in the third lesson of this course and in the article “Character and Temperament.”

All of the above, of course, is not comprehensive information about what general human psychology is. This lesson is intended only to give a general idea and indicate directions for further study.

Basic terms and concepts in general psychology

Basic terms and concepts in general psychology

Psychology is the science of the general patterns of development and functioning of the psyche and the individual typological characteristics of its manifestation, the science of the general patterns of human interaction with the environment.

Higher mental functions are a conventional concept, introduced by , denoting complex mental processes, social in their formation, which are mediated and therefore arbitrary.

Consciousness is knowledge that can somehow be transmitted to others; it is the ability to convey one’s knowledge to another in speech or in another way.

The unconscious is a set of mental processes, acts and states caused by phenomena of reality, the influence of which the subject is not aware of; The unconscious differs from consciousness in that the reality it reflects merges with the experiences of the subject, his relationship to the world, therefore, in the unconscious, voluntary control of the actions carried out by the subject and assessment of their results are impossible.

Psyche is a property of the brain. “Sensation, thought, consciousness is the highest product of matter organized in a special way.”

Personality is a set of developed habits and preferences, mental attitude and tone, sociocultural experience and acquired knowledge, a set of psychophysical traits and characteristics of a person, his archetype that determines everyday behavior and connections with society and nature. Personality is also observed as manifestations of “behavioral masks” developed for different situations and social interaction groups.

Individual - (from the Latin individuum - an indivisible person as a single natural being, a representative of the species Homo sapiens, a product of phylogenetic and ontogenetic development, the unity of innate and acquired, a bearer of individually unique traits; 2) an individual representative of the human community; a social being that goes beyond its natural (biological) limitations, uses tools, signs and through them masters its own behavior and mental processes. Both meanings of the term are connected and describe a person in the aspect of his separateness and isolation.

Individuality – 1. The main quality of a person; ?a person is an individual due to the presence of special, individual, unique properties..., individual properties of a person are not the same thing as the personal properties of an individual, that is, properties that characterize him as a person? (). 2. A person characterized by his socially significant differences from other people; the originality of the psyche and personality of the individual, its uniqueness; individuality is manifested in the traits of temperament, character, specific interests, qualities of perceptual processes and intelligence, needs and abilities of the individual.

Introspection is a research method that involves observing one’s own mental life without using any tools or scaling. Independent options: analytical, systematic and phenomenological introspection.

Interiorization is the name given to the transition as a result of which processes of interaction that are external in form with external, material objects are transformed into processes that occur on the mental plane, on the plane of consciousness. At the same time, they undergo a specific transformation - they are generalized, verbalized, reduced and, most importantly, become capable of further development, which goes beyond the boundaries of the possibilities of external activity. The process of internalization does not consist in the fact that external activity moves into the internal “plane of consciousness”; this is the process in which this internal plan is formed.

Observation is meaningful, interpretive and goal-directed perception.

Experiment - One of the main (along with observation) methods of scientific knowledge in general, psychological research in particular. It differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, carrying out systematic manipulation of one or more variables (factors) and recording accompanying changes in the behavior of the studied object. Correctly formulated E. allows you to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships, not limiting yourself to stating the connection (correlation) between variables.

Test – A test fixed in time, designed to establish quantitative (and qualitative) individual psychological differences; The test is the main tool of psychodiagnostic examination, with the help of which a psychological diagnosis is made.

A survey is a method of obtaining information.

Reflection is a generic concept of the psyche, a method of interpersonal communication.

Dominant is the dominant focus of physiological excitation in the central nervous system at a particular time period, to which stimuli that are usually indifferent to this focus are “switched.” The concept has been introduced. The dominant is characterized by increased excitability, persistence of excitation, and the summation of successively arriving nerve impulses, which is the neurophysiological basis of directed behavior.

Phylogeny is changes in the process of evolution of various forms of the organic world, i.e. species.

Ontogenesis is the development of a person throughout his life.

The elementary sensory psyche, by definition, is the stage of development of the psyche at which the activity of animals corresponds to one or another individual influencing property (or a set of individual properties) due to the significant connection of this property with those influences on which the implementation of the basic biological functions of animals depends. Accordingly, the reflection of reality associated with such a structure of activity has the form of sensitivity to individual influencing properties (or a set of properties), the form of an elementary sensation.

Perceptual psyche is a psyche that is characterized by the ability to reflect external objective reality no longer in the form of individual elementary sensations caused by individual properties or their combination, but in the form of a reflection of things. The activity of the animal is determined at this stage by the fact that the content of the activity is highlighted, aimed not at the object of influence, but at the conditions in which this object is objectively given in the environment.

Instinct is a set of developed habits and preferences, mental attitude and tone, sociocultural experience and acquired knowledge, a set of psychophysical traits and characteristics of a person, his archetype, which determine everyday behavior and connections with society and nature. Personality is also observed as manifestations of “behavioral masks” developed for different situations and social interaction groups.

Anthropogenesis is the origin and development of all species of the genus Homo, considered in biological, mental and sociocultural terms.

Zone of proximal development - the discrepancy in the level of difficulty of tasks solved by the child independently (current level of development) and under the guidance of an adult; The concept of the zone of proximal development formed the basis of the concept of the relationship between learning and mental development of the child.

Activity is a process (processes) of active interaction between a subject and an object, during which the subject satisfies any of its needs and achieves a goal. An activity can be called any activity of a person to which he himself attaches some meaning. Activity characterizes the conscious side of a person’s personality (as opposed to behavior).

Goal is the ideal or real object of the subject’s conscious or unconscious aspiration; the final outcome that a process is intentionally aimed at.

Motive - (from the Latin movere - to set in motion, push incentives for activity related to meeting the needs of the subject; a set of external or internal conditions that cause the activity of the subject and determine its direction; 2) the object that motivates and determines the choice of direction of activity, for the sake of which it is carried out ; 3) the conscious reason underlying the choice of actions and actions of the individual.

Operation – A structural unit of human activity, correlated with a task and with the objective conditions of its implementation.

An action is a process whose motive (i.e., what it is done for) does not coincide with its object (i.e., what it is aimed at). The motive belongs to the activity in which the action is included. The subject of an action is its conscious immediate goal. In the future, this goal itself can become a motive, and then the action unfolds into activity (a “shift of motive to goal” occurs).

Leading activity is a child’s activity that is characterized by the following three characteristics. Firstly, it is an activity in the form of which other, new types of activity arise and within which are differentiated. Secondly, this is an activity in which private mental processes are formed or restructured. Thirdly, this is an activity on which the main changes in the child’s personality observed at a given age most closely depend.

Need - usually refers to the following three phenomena:

1. Objective needs of people in certain conditions that ensure their life and development.

2. Personal properties that determine her attitude to reality and her own responsibilities, ultimately determining her way of life and activity.

3. Certain states of the human psyche, reflecting his need for substances, energy and other factors necessary for his functioning as a living organism and personality.

Self-actualization is a person’s desire to identify and develop his personal capabilities as fully as possible.

Communication is a process of interaction between people in which the persons participating in it, by their appearance and behavior, have a more or less strong influence on the claims and intentions, on the thoughts, states and feelings of each other.

Verbal communication is the process of establishing and maintaining purposeful, direct or indirect, contact between people using language

Nonverbal communication is a communication interaction between individuals without the use of words (transferring information or influencing each other through intonation, gestures, facial expressions, pantomime, changing the mise-en-scène of communication), that is, without speech and language means presented in direct or any sign form .

speech - A historically established form of communication between people through language. Speech communication is carried out according to the rules of a given language, which is a system of phonetic, lexical, grammatical and stylistic means and rules of communication. R. and language form a complex dialectical unity. R. is carried out according to the rules of the language, and at the same time, under the influence of a number of factors (the requirements of social practice, the development of science, the mutual influence of languages, etc.) it changes and improves the language.

Conflict is the ultimate aggravation of contradictions. Psychologists also emphasize that such a difficult-to-resolve contradiction is associated with acute emotional experiences.

Group – A community of people limited in size, distinguished from the social whole on the basis of certain characteristics (the nature of the activity performed, social or class affiliation, structure, composition, level of development, etc.).

A team is a group where interpersonal relationships are mediated by the socially valuable and personally significant content of joint activities.

Orientation - The set of interests and inclinations of a person.

Value - a socially approved and shared idea by most people of what is the ideal and standard of what is proper.

Worldview - A system of views on the objective world and a person’s place in it, on a person’s attitude to the reality around him and to himself, as well as the basic life positions of people determined by these views, their beliefs, ideals, principles of cognition and activity, value orientations.

Temperament is a dynamic characteristic of an individual’s mental activity. It manifests itself first of all in his impressionability, that is, the strength and stability of the impact that the impression has on a person. Temperament also affects emotional excitability, manifesting itself in the strength of emotional arousal, the speed with which it covers the personality, and the stability with which it is maintained. The expression of temperament is impulsiveness, which is characterized by the strength of impulses, the speed with which it masters the motor sphere and goes into action, and the stability with which it retains its effective force.

Choleric - A subject with one of the main types of temperament, characterized by a high level of mental activity, vigor of action, sharpness, swiftness, force of movements, their fast pace, impetuosity; choleric people are quick-tempered, impatient, prone to emotional breakdowns, and sometimes aggressive.

Sanguine - A subject with one of the main types of temperament, characterized by high mental activity, energy, efficiency, speed and vivacity of movements, variety and richness of facial expressions, fast pace of speech; strives for frequent changes of impressions, easily and quickly responds to surrounding events, is sociable, emotions are predominantly positive.

Phlegmatic - A subject with one of the types of temperament, characterized by a low level of mental activity, slowness, and inexpressive facial expressions; a phlegmatic person has difficulty switching from one type of activity to another and adapting to a new environment; feelings and moods are constant.

Melancholic - A subject with one of the four main types of temperament, characterized by a low level of mental activity, slowness of movements, restraint of motor skills and speech, and rapid fatigue. Melancholic people are distinguished by high emotional sensitivity, depth and stability of emotions with weak external expression, and negative emotions predominate.

Excitation – A property of living organisms, the active response of excitable tissue to irritation. For the nervous system, arousal is the main function. The cells that form the nervous system have the property of conducting excitation from the area where it originated to other areas and to neighboring cells.

Inhibition is a nervous process aimed at weakening or completely stopping one or another type of activity of the body.

Character is a psychological formation that contains a person’s emotional attitudes to typical life situations that have been established in the process of life and stereotypes of cognitive and behavioral patterns of response to these situations.

Accentuation is a concept introduced by Leonhard and means excessive expression of individual character traits and their combinations, representing extreme variants of the norm, bordering on psychopathy.

Ability - Individual psychological characteristics that determine the success of performing an activity or a series of activities, which cannot be reduced to knowledge, skills and abilities, but determine the ease and speed of learning new ways and techniques of activity ().and

Giftedness - 1) a qualitatively unique combination of abilities that ensures the success of an activity; 2) general abilities, or general aspects of abilities that determine the breadth of a person’s capabilities, the level and originality of his activities; 3) mental potential, a holistic individual characteristic of cognitive capabilities and learning abilities; 4) a set of inclinations, natural data, characteristics of the degree of expression and originality of the natural prerequisites of abilities; 5) talent.

Inclinations – Congenital anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nervous system and brain, which form the natural basis for the development of abilities.

Sensation is a reflection of the properties of objects in the objective world, arising from their direct impact on receptors.

Perception – The work of the sense organs and the corresponding subjective images. Perception arises as a result of the synthesis of sensations with the help of ideas and existing experience, that is, it is a synthesis of the objective with the help of the subjective.

Illusion – Something unrealizable, a dream.

Memory is the ability to reproduce past experiences, one of the main properties of the nervous system, expressed in the ability to store information for a long time and repeatedly enter it into the sphere of consciousness and behavior.

Recognition is the recognition, as already known, of an object that is in the center of actual perception. This process is based on the comparison of perceived features with the corresponding memory traces, which act as standards for the identification features of the perceived object.

Reproduction – Updating of previously formed psychological content (thoughts, images, feelings, movements) in the absence of external, actually perceived indicators.

Imprinting is a specific form of learning.

Thinking is the highest cognitive process. It is a form of a person’s creative reflection of reality, generating a result that does not exist in reality itself or the subject at a given moment in time. Human thinking (in its lower forms it is found in animals) can also be understood as a creative transformation of ideas and images existing in memory.

Emotions are an impulsive reaction that reflects an individual’s attitude to the meaning of a phenomenon he perceives.

Feelings are emotional processes of a higher level; they express a person’s holistic attitude to the world, to what he experiences and does in it, in the form of direct experience.

Affect - A rapidly and violently flowing, most powerful emotion of an explosive nature, uncontrollable by consciousness and capable of taking the form of pathological affect.

Stress is a term used to describe a wide range of human conditions that occur in response to a variety of extreme stress.

Frustration is a mental state of disorganization of consciousness and activity that occurs when, due to some obstacles and counteractions, the motive remains unsatisfied or its satisfaction is inhibited ().

Will is the ability of a person, manifested in self-determination and regulation of his activities and various mental processes. The main functions of the will are: the choice of motives and goals, the regulation of the impulse to action when their motivation is insufficient or excessive, the organization of mental processes into a system adequate to the activity performed by a person, the mobilization of physical and mental capabilities in a situation of overcoming obstacles in achieving set goals.

Attention is the concentration and direction of mental activity on a specific object.

Recommended reading

In order to dive deeper into the study of general psychology, you need to arm yourself with the most popular and influential tools in scientific circles, which are the works of famous authors of textbooks and manuals on psychology. Below is a short description of some of them.

Maklakov A. G. General psychology.

In compiling this textbook, the most modern achievements in the field of psychology and pedagogy were used. On their basis, issues of psychology, mental processes, properties and their states, as well as many other features are considered. The textbook contains illustrations and explanations, as well as a bibliographic reference. Intended for teachers, graduate students and university students.

Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology.

For more than 50 years, this textbook has been considered one of the best psychology textbooks in Russia. It presents and summarizes the achievements of Soviet and world psychological science. The work is intended for teachers, graduate students and university students.

Gippenreiter Yu. B. Introduction to general psychology.

This manual presents the basic concepts of psychological science, its methods and problems. The book contains a lot of data on research results, examples from fiction and real-life situations, and also perfectly combines a serious scientific level and an accessible presentation of the material. The work will be of interest to a wide range of readers and people just beginning to master psychology.

Petrovsky A.V. General psychology.

Expanded and revised edition of “General Psychology”. The textbook presents the basics of psychological science, and also summarizes information from many textbooks (“Age and educational psychology”, “Practical classes in psychology”, “Collection of problems in general psychology”). The book is intended for students who are serious about studying human psychology.

The role played by general psychology in modern society cannot be overestimated. Today it is necessary to have at least a minimum of psychological knowledge, because general psychology opens the door to the world of a person’s mind and soul. Any educated person should know the basics of this science of life, because... It is very important to get to know not only the world around you, but also other people. Thanks to psychological knowledge, you can build your relationships with others and organize your personal activities much more effectively, as well as improve yourself. It is for these reasons that all the thinkers of antiquity always said that a person must first know himself.

Psychology and genetics

Within the framework of the Geneva School, such a direction as genetic psychology was born, the subject of research of which is the development and origin of intelligence, the formation of the concepts of time, space, and object. As an independent science, genetics emerged from biology in 1900, and its creator was the Swiss scientist Jean Piaget.

Studying children's logic, the peculiarities of a child's thinking, and the mechanisms of cognitive activity, genetic psychology is the science of variability and heredity.

The human psyche, if you believe the theory of evolution, tends to change along with society, developing in two forms - during the formation of a child and during the formation of the human race. Fixed in nervous formations, the stages of mental development are inherited, and personality development, depending on the social situation, can be accelerated or suspended. This means that mental development will depend on the environment, on upbringing, on the environment. This is the genetic principle in psychology.

Genetic sources of human psychology and behavior are the most important problem of psychology and pedagogy. It is impossible to directly influence the genetic apparatus through training and education, which means that what is given genetically cannot be educated. But, on the other hand, training and education themselves have enormous potential for the mental development of an individual.

This problem has existed in psychology for a long time. During its development, genetic psychology itself has made many scientific discoveries and found explanations for certain phenomena, although many details are still controversial today.