Methods of psychology - what is it, definition

Observation consists of several stages:

1. Definition of the subject (situation, object, etc.);
2. Determining the method of observation;
3. Selecting a data recording method;
4. Creating a plan;
5. Selecting a method for processing results;
6. Observation;
7. Processing of received data and their interpretation.

You should also decide on the means of observation - it can be carried out by a specialist or recorded by devices (audio, photo, video equipment, surveillance cards). Observation is often confused with experimentation. But these are two different methods. The difference between them is that when observing:

• The observer does not influence the process;
• The observer registers exactly what he observes.

There is a certain code of ethics developed by the American Psychological Association (APA). This code implies conducting observations according to certain rules and precautions. Examples include the following:

• If the observation is planned to be carried out in a public place, then obtaining consent from the participants in the experiment is not necessary. Otherwise, consent is required.
• Researchers must not allow participants to come to harm in any way during the course of the study.
• Researchers should minimize their intrusion into the privacy of participants.
• Researchers should not disclose confidential information about participants.

Every person, even if he is not a specialist in the field of psychology, can use the observation method in order to, if necessary, obtain data regarding any issue.

EXAMPLE:

You want to send your child to some section or club. To make the right choice, you need to identify his predispositions, i.e. what he gravitates towards on his own without outside influence. To do this you need to conduct observation. Look at the child from the outside, what he does when he is left alone, what actions he performs, what he likes to do. If, for example, he constantly draws everywhere, then perhaps he has a natural affinity for drawing and you can try sending him to an art school. If he likes to disassemble/assemble something, then he may be interested in technology. A constant craving for playing ball suggests that it is worth sending him to a football or basketball school. You can also ask kindergarten teachers or school teachers to observe your child and draw certain conclusions based on this. If your son is constantly bullying and fighting with boys, this is not a reason to scold him, but an incentive to enroll him in some kind of martial arts class. If your daughter loves to braid her friends' hair, then she may be interested in starting to learn the art of hairdressing.

There can be a huge number of observation options. The main thing is to understand what exactly you want to determine and think through the best ways to make your observations.

Psychological experiment

An experiment as an experiment conducted under certain conditions in order to obtain new data through the direct intervention of the experimenter in the life activity of the subject. During the research process, the scientist changes a certain factor/factors and sees what happens as a result. A psychological experiment may include other methods: testing, survey, observation. But it can also be a completely independent method.

There are several types of experiments (according to the method of conducting):

• Laboratory – when you can control specific factors and change conditions;
• Natural - carried out under normal conditions and the person may not even know about the experiment;
• Psychological and pedagogical – when a person/group of people learns something and develops certain qualities in themselves, masters skills;
• Aerobatic - a trial experiment conducted before the main one.

There are also experiments on the level of awareness:

• Explicit - the subject is aware of the experiment and all its details;
• Hidden - the subject does not know all the details of the experiment or does not know about the experiment at all;
• Combined - the subject knows only part of the information or is deliberately misled about the experiment.

Organization of the experiment process

The researcher must set a clear task - why the experiment is being conducted, with whom and under what conditions. Next, a certain relationship must be established between the subject and the scientist, and the subject is given instructions (or not given). Then the experiment itself is carried out, after which the data obtained is processed and interpreted.

An experiment as a scientific method must meet certain qualities:

• Objectivity of the data obtained;
• Reliability of the data obtained;
• Validity of the obtained data.

But, despite the fact that experiment is one of the most respected research methods, it has both pros and cons.

Pros:

• Possibility to choose a starting point to start the experiment;
• Possibility of repeated implementation;
• The ability to change certain factors, thereby influencing the result.

Cons (according to some experts):

• The psyche is difficult to study;
• The psyche is fickle and unique;
• The psyche has the property of spontaneity.

For these reasons, when conducting psychological experiments, researchers cannot rely on data from this method alone in their results and must resort to combination with other methods and take into account many different indicators. When conducting experiments, you should also adhere to the APA Code of Ethics.

It is possible to conduct various experiments in the process of life without the help of certified specialists and experienced psychologists. Naturally, the results obtained during independent experiments will be purely subjective. But it is still possible to obtain certain information.

EXAMPLE:

Let's say you want to learn more about people's behavior in certain circumstances, see how they will react to something and, perhaps, even understand their train of thought. Model a situation for this and use it in life. As an example, the following can be given: a person was interested in how others would react to a sleeping person sitting next to them and leaning on them in a vehicle. To do this, he took his friend, who was filming what was happening on camera, and repeated the same action several times: he pretended to be asleep and leaned his elbows on his neighbor. People's reactions were different: some moved away, some woke up and expressed dissatisfaction, some sat peacefully, offering their shoulder to the “tired” person. But based on the video recordings received, a conclusion was drawn: people, for the most part, react negatively to a “foreign object” in their personal space and experience unpleasant emotions. But this is just the “tip of the iceberg” and the psychological rejection of people from each other can be interpreted in completely different ways.

When conducting your own personal experiments, always be careful and make sure that your research does not cause any harm to others.

How to write a term paper on speech therapy

07.09.2010 179877

These guidelines are compiled to help students gain an understanding of the content and structure of coursework in speech therapy.

Logopedia of pedagogical science that studies anomalies of speech development with normal hearing, explores the manifestations, nature and mechanisms of speech disorders, develops the scientific basis for overcoming and preventing them means of special training and education.

The subject of speech therapy as a science is speech disorders and the process of training and education of persons with speech disorders.

The object of study is a person suffering from a speech disorder.

The main task of speech therapy as a science is the study, prevention and elimination of various types of speech disorders.

Coursework in speech therapy is a student's scientific and experimental research. This type of educational activity, provided for by the educational and professional program and curriculum, contributes to the acquisition of skills in working with literature, analyzing and summarizing literary sources in order to determine the range of insufficiently studied problems, determining the content and methods of experimental research, processing skills and qualitative analysis of the results obtained. The need to complete coursework in speech therapy is due to the updating of knowledge concerning the content, organization, principles, methods and techniques of speech therapy work.

As a rule, during their studies, students must write two term papers - theoretical and practical.

The first course work should be devoted to the analysis and synthesis of general and specialized literature on the chosen topic. Based on this analysis, it is necessary to justify and develop a method of ascertaining (diagnostic) experiment.

In the second course work, it is necessary to provide an analysis of the results obtained during the ascertaining experiment, as well as determine the directions and content of speech therapy work, and select adequate methods and techniques of correction.

So, let’s present the general requirements for the content and design of coursework in speech therapy.

The initial and most important stage of working on a course project is the choice of a topic, which is either proposed by the supervisor or chosen by the student independently from a list of topics that are consistent with the areas of scientific research of the department.

Each topic can be modified, considered in different aspects, but taking into account a theoretical and practical approach. Having chosen a topic, the student needs to think through in detail its specific content, areas of work, practical material, etc., which should be reflected both in the formulation of the topic and in the further construction of the study. It should be recalled that the chosen topic may not only have a purely theoretical orientation, for example: “Dysarthria. Characteristics of the defect”, “Classification of dysgraphia”, but also take into account the practical significance of the problem under consideration, for example: “Speech therapy work on speech correction for dysarthria”. It should also be taken into account that when formulating a topic, excessive detail should be avoided, for example: “Formation of prosodic components of speech in preschoolers of the sixth year of life attending a preschool institution for children with severe speech impairments.”

The course work includes such mandatory parts as: introduction, three chapters, conclusion, bibliography and appendix.

The text of the term paper begins with the title page . An example of its design can be seen here.

Then the content of the work is given, in which the names of chapters, paragraphs, and sections are formulated in strict accordance with the content of the thesis. An example of its design can be seen here.

In the text, each subsequent chapter and paragraph begins on a new page. At the end of each chapter, the materials are summarized and conclusions are formulated.

The introduction reveals the relevance of the problem under consideration in general and the topic being studied in particular; the problem, subject, object, and purpose of the study are defined. In accordance with the goal and hypothesis, objectives and a set of research methods aimed at achieving the objectives must be defined.

The relevance of the topic lies in reflecting the current level of pedagogical science and practice, meeting the requirements of novelty and usefulness.

When defining the research problem, it is important to indicate what practical tasks it will help to implement in training and educating people with speech pathology.

The object of research is understood as certain aspects of pedagogical reality, perceived through a system of theoretical and practical knowledge. The ultimate goal of any research is to improve this object.

The subject of research is some part, property, element of an object, i.e. the subject of research always indicates a specific aspect of the object that is to be studied and about which the researcher wants to gain new knowledge. An object is a part of an object.

You can give an example of the formulation of the object, subject and problem of research:

– The object of the study is the speech activity of preschool children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.

– The subject of the study is the features of intonation speech of children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.

– The research problem is to determine effective directions for speech therapy work on the formation of intonation expressiveness of speech in the system of correctional intervention.

The purpose of the study contributes to the specification of the object being studied. The goal of any research is to solve a specific problem. The goal is specified in tasks taking into account the subject of research.

The research objectives are formulated in a certain sequence, which determines the logic of the research. The research objectives are set on the basis of a theoretical analysis of the problem and an assessment of the state of its solution in practice.

The first chapter is an analysis of literary sources, which examines the state of this problem in historical and modern aspects, and presents the most important theoretical principles that formed the basis of the study.

When writing the first chapter, you should pay attention to the fact that the text of the course work must be written in a scientific style. When presenting scientific material, it is necessary to comply with the following requirements:

– Specificity – a review of only those sources that are necessary to disclose only a given topic or solve only a given problem;

– Clarity – which is characterized by semantic coherence and integrity of individual parts of the text;

– Logicality – which provides for a certain structure of presentation of the material;

– Reasoning – evidence of thoughts (why this and not otherwise);

– Precision of wording, excluding ambiguous interpretation of the authors’ statements.

A literary review of the state of the problem being studied should not be reduced to a consistent presentation of literary sources. It should present a generalized description of the literature: highlight the main directions (currents, concepts, points of view), analyze in detail and evaluate the most fundamental works of representatives of these directions.

When writing a work, the student must correctly use literary materials, make references to the authors and sources from which the results of scientific research are borrowed. Failure to provide required references will reduce your coursework grade.

As a rule, in coursework on speech therapy, references to literary sources are formatted as follows: the number of the cited source in the general list of references is placed in square brackets. For example: General speech underdevelopment is a speech pathology in which there is a persistent lag in the formation of all components of the language system: phonetics, vocabulary and grammar [17].

When using quotations, in square brackets, in addition to indicating the source number, the page number from which this excerpt is taken is indicated, for example: Speech rhythm is based on a physiological and intellectual basis, since, firstly, it is directly related to the rhythm of breathing. Secondly, being an element that performs a communicative function, “correlates with meaning, i.e. controlled intellectually” [23, P.40].

However, course work should not be of a purely abstract nature, so you should not abuse the unreasonable abundance of citations. Quoting should be logically justified, convincing and used only when really necessary.

In the second chapter , devoted to experimental research, the organization should be described and the program of the ascertaining experiment should be presented. The survey methodology, as a rule, consists of a description of several series of tasks, with detailed instructions, visual and lexical material, the procedure for completing tasks by experiment participants, and scoring criteria. This chapter also provides a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the results obtained.

When analyzing the results of an experiment, it is necessary to use a scoring system. Examples of various criteria for quantitative and qualitative assessment are presented in the following works:

– Glukhov V.P. Formation of coherent speech in preschool children with general speech underdevelopment. - M.: Arkti, 2002. - 144 p.

– Fotekova T.A. Test methodology for diagnosing oral speech of primary schoolchildren. - M.: Arkti, 2000. - 56 p.

– Levchenko I.Yu. Pathopsychology: Theory and practice. - M.: Academy, 2000. - 232 p.

In order to visually present the results obtained during the experimental study, it is recommended to use tables, graphs, diagrams, etc. Histograms can be used in a variety of ways - columnar, cylindrical, planar, volumetric, etc. An example of the design of tables, figures, and histograms can be found here.

The third chapter provides a rationale for the proposed methods and techniques and reveals the content of the main stages of correctional work.

The conclusion contains a summary of the material presented and the main conclusions formulated by the author.

The bibliography must contain at least 25 sources. The list includes bibliographic information about the sources used in preparing the work. An example of its design can be seen here.

In the application you can present bulky tables or illustrations, examination protocols, observation records, products of activity (drawings, written works of children), notes from speech therapy classes, etc.

The volume of one course work must be at least 30 pages of typewritten text.

In general, coursework in speech therapy is the basis for a future thesis, in which the study of the begun problem can be continued, but from the standpoint of a different approach or a comparative analysis of the disorders being studied in different age categories of people with different types of speech disorders.

The content and format of theses in speech therapy can be found here.

Literature:

1. How to write a term paper on speech therapy: Methodological recommendations. Educational and methodological manual / Comp. Artemova E.E., Tishina L.A. / Ed. Orlova O.S. – M.: MGOPU, 2008. – 35 p.

2. Research work of students in the system of higher professional pedagogical education (specialty 031800 - Speech therapy). Methodological recommendations for completing the thesis / Compiled by. L.V. Lopatina, V.I. Lipakova, G.G. Golubeva. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A. I. Herzen, 2002. - 140 p.

Introspection

Self-observation is observing yourself and the characteristics of your behavior. This method can be used in the form of self-control and plays a big role in psychology and human life. However, as a method, self-observation to a greater extent can only state the fact of something, but not its cause (forgot something, but it is not known why). That is why introspection, although an important research method, cannot be the main and independent one in the process of learning the essence of mental manifestations.

The quality of the method we are considering is directly dependent on a person’s self-esteem. For example, people with low self-esteem are more predisposed to self-observation. And the consequence of hypertrophied introspection can be self-digging, fixation on wrong actions, feelings of guilt, self-justification, etc.

Adequate and effective self-observation is facilitated by:

• Keeping personal records (diary);
• Comparison of self-observation with observations of others;
• Increased self-esteem;
• Psychological trainings on personal growth and development.

The use of introspection in life is a very effective way to understand yourself, the motives of your actions, get rid of some problems in life and resolve difficult situations.

EXAMPLE:

You want to increase your efficiency in daily activities (communicating with people, at work, at home) or get rid of bad habits (negative thinking, irritability, even smoking). Make it a rule to be in a state of mindfulness as often as possible every day: pay attention to your thoughts (what you are thinking about now) and your actions (what you are doing at the moment). Try to analyze what causes certain reactions in you (anger, irritation, envy, joy, satisfaction). What “hooks” do people and circumstances pull you on? Get yourself a notebook in which you will write down all your observations. Just look at what is happening inside you and what contributes to it. After analyzing after some time (a week, a month) what you have learned about yourself, you will be able to draw a conclusion about what you should cultivate in yourself and what you should start getting rid of.

Regular practice of self-observation has a very positive effect on a person’s inner world and, as a result, on its external manifestations.

Typology of B. G. Ananyev

There is the most popular classification of psychology methods according to B. G. Ananyev.

The first group includes organizational methods. It is presented by comparative (different groups are compared according to some selected criterion - gender, age, activity), longitudinal (multiple studies of the same respondents are carried out over a long time) and complex method (the object is studied by scientists from different scientific fields, different techniques).

The second group includes empirical methods of psychology. They are represented by observation and introspection, experiment, psychodiagnostic tools (tests, questionnaires, interviews, surveys, conversations, sociometry), analysis of activity products and the biographical method.

The third group focuses on methods that can be used to process data. They include quantitative and qualitative methods.

The fourth group represents interpretive methods of psychology. The use of genetic (the process of analyzing the object of study from the point of view of its development, identifying certain phases, stages, etc.) and structural methods (establishing structural connections between all the traits and properties of an individual).

Psychological testing

Psychological testing belongs to the section of psychodiagnostics and deals with the study of psychological qualities and personality traits through the use of psychological tests. This method is often used in counseling, psychotherapy, and by employers when hiring. Psychological tests are needed when you need to learn about a person’s personality in more detail, which cannot be done through a conversation or survey.

The main characteristics of psychological tests are:

• Validity is the correspondence of the data obtained from the test to the characteristic for which the test is carried out;
• Reliability – consistency of the results obtained during repeated testing;
• Reliability is the property of a test to give true results, even with intentional or unintentional attempts to distort them by the subjects;
• Representativeness – compliance with standards.

A truly effective test is created through trial and modification (changing the number of questions, their composition and wording). The test must go through a multi-stage verification and adaptation procedure. An effective psychological test is a standardized test, based on the results of which it becomes possible to assess the psychophysiological and personal characteristics, as well as the knowledge, skills and abilities of the subject.

There are different types of tests:

• Career guidance tests - to determine a person’s predisposition to any type of activity or suitability for a position;
• Personality tests - to study character, needs, emotions, abilities and other personality traits;
• Intelligence tests - to study the degree of development of intelligence;
• Verbal tests - to study a person’s ability to describe actions performed in words;
• Achievement tests - to assess the level of mastery of knowledge and skills.

There are other test options aimed at studying a person and his personality traits: color tests, linguistic tests, questionnaires, handwriting analysis, psychometrics, lie detector, various diagnostic methods, etc.

Psychological tests are very convenient to use in everyday life in order to better know yourself or the people you care about.

EXAMPLE:

Tired of making money in a way that does not bring moral, psychological, or emotional satisfaction. Dreaming of finally quitting and doing something else. But you don’t know what. Find some career guidance tests and test yourself. It is quite possible that you will learn some things about yourself that you had no idea about before. The results of such tests can help you discover new facets of yourself and will help you understand what you would really like to do and what you are inclined to do. And knowing all this, it is much easier to find something you like. In addition, this is also good because a person, doing what he loves and enjoying it, becomes happier and more satisfied in life and, on top of everything else, begins to earn more.

Psychological testing promotes a deeper understanding of yourself, your needs and abilities, and often indicates the direction for further personal development.

Observation

Methods of developmental psychology include this way of understanding reality. Observation is characterized by conducting it under normal conditions for the subject, without any influence on him. Everything the respondent does and says is recorded in detail and then amenable to analysis. You can write down everything or select a specific moment. The use of continuous recording is characteristic of the study of personality as a whole, and selective recording is characteristic of recording certain manifestations of mental reality. Methods of general psychology are also represented by introspection.

Observation is characterized by compliance with certain conditions, namely, it is purposeful (a clear definition of the purpose and tasks of the study); naturalness (mostly the observed persons do not know that they are being studied); the presence of a plan; exact observance of the object and subject; limiting the elements that are the object of observation; development of stable criteria to evaluate signs; ensuring clarity and reliability.

The survey also introduces psychological methods. It lies in the fact that data can be obtained as a result of answers to questions by the subjects themselves. The survey can be conducted orally, in writing or freely.

Biographical method

The biographical method in psychology is a way by which a person’s life path is examined, diagnosed, corrected and designed. Various modifications of this method began to develop at the beginning of the 20th century. In modern biographical methods, a personality is studied in the context of history and prospects for its individual development. This involves obtaining data, the source of which is autobiographical techniques (autobiographies, interviews, questionnaires), as well as eyewitness accounts, analysis of notes, letters, diaries, etc.

This method is often used by managers of various enterprises, biographers studying the lives of certain people, and simply in communication between unfamiliar people. It is easy to use when communicating with a person to compile his psychological portrait.

EXAMPLE:

You are the head of an organization and you are hiring a new employee. You need to find out what kind of person he is, what his personality traits are, what his life experiences are, etc. In addition to filling out questionnaires and conducting interviews, you can use the biographical method for this. Talk to the person, let him tell you facts from his biography and some significant moments in his life path. Ask what he can tell you about himself and his life from memory. This method does not require special skills or preparation. Such a conversation can take place in a light, relaxed atmosphere and, most likely, will be pleasant for both interlocutors.

Using the biographical method is a great way to get to know a new person and an opportunity to see his strengths and weaknesses, as well as imagine a possible perspective of interaction with him.

Experimental method

This method does not have the disadvantages of the previous method. Using an experiment, a researcher, when creating the necessary conditions, can cause the mental phenomenon that is being studied. It can also simplify conditions, replace them with others, speed up or slow down the course of the mental process. During the experiment, it is possible to repeat the process being studied many times and quantitatively process the collected material. There are two types of experiments:

• Laboratory experiment. It is usually carried out in specially created laboratories equipped with appropriate technical means. It can be carried out without psychological equipment. The method has its drawbacks, for example, knowing that some kind of experiment is being carried out, but the goal is not precisely known, can cause unnecessary nervous tension in the subject. The very conditions of the laboratory experiment are artificial and unusual. Such important phenomena of the human psyche as feelings, will, interests, character, etc. are difficult to study using laboratory experiments. During the experiment, the subject’s behavior is influenced by the physical and mental state - fatigue, absent-mindedness, tension, as well as the attitude towards the experiment itself, the degree of trust in it;
• Natural experiment. It is carried out under conditions familiar to the subject. Unaware that he is the object of research, the subject performs experimental tasks naturally, like others. The success of its application depends on the development of experimental tasks, the careful consideration of conditions, the accuracy and completeness of recording its progress.

Survey

A survey is a verbal-communicative method, during which interaction occurs between the researcher and the person being studied. The psychologist asks questions, and the subject (respondent) gives answers to them. This method is considered one of the most common in psychology. The questions in it depend on what information is required to be obtained during the study. As a rule, a survey is a mass method because it is used to obtain information about a group of people, rather than about one person.

Surveys are divided into:

• Standardized – strict and giving a general idea of ​​the problem;
• Non-standardized ones are less strict and allow you to study the nuances of the problem.

In the process of creating surveys, the first step is to formulate program questions that can only be understood by specialists. After this, they are translated into survey questions that are more understandable to the average person.

Types of surveys:

• Written allows you to gain superficial knowledge about the problem;
• Oral - allows you to penetrate into human psychology more deeply than written;
• Questioning – preliminary answers to questions before the main conversation;
• Personality tests - to determine the mental characteristics of a person;
• Interview – personal conversation (also applies to the conversation method).

When writing questions you need to adhere to some rules:

• Separateness and conciseness;
• Exclusion of specific terms;
• Brevity;
• Specificity;
• No hints;
• Questions require non-standard answers;
• Questions should not be off-putting;
• Questions should not suggest anything.

Depending on the tasks assigned, questions are divided into several types:

• Open – offering answers in a free form;
• Closed – offering prepared answers;
• Subjective – about a person’s attitude towards something/someone;
• Projective - about a third person (without indicating the respondent).

A survey, as already mentioned, is most suitable for obtaining information from a large number of people. This method allows you to determine the needs of the masses or determine their opinion on a specific issue.

EXAMPLE:

You are the director of a company providing any services and you need to find out the opinions of your employees on improving working conditions and attracting more clients. In order to do this as quickly and as efficiently as possible, you can draw up (for example, together with a staff analyst) a series of questions, the answers to which will help you solve your problems. Namely: to make the work process of employees more pleasant for them and to find some ways (possibly very effective) to expand the client base. Based on the results of such a survey, you will receive information on very important points. Firstly, you will know exactly what changes your employees need so that the atmosphere in the team becomes better and work brings positive emotions. Secondly, you will have a list of all possible methods to improve your business. And thirdly, you will probably be able to identify a promising and promising person from the total mass of employees who can be promoted, thereby improving the overall performance of the enterprise.

Surveys and questionnaires are a great way to obtain important and relevant information on current topics from a large number of people.

Methods of basic (general) psychology

Basic (general) psychology conducts research using general concepts about human consciousness, its views on the world, lifestyle and morals, and also includes everything that can have an impact on the conduct of this psychological research.
Methods of basic (general) psychology are methods by which a person conducting research has the opportunity to obtain reliable information for him to further put forward a scientific theory and the opportunity to give practical recommendations.

Observation

Purposeful and organized perception and recording of the behavior of the object of study.
This technique is considered one of the most ancient and should be carried out in familiar conditions for the person who is the object of this study. Observation is usually carried out when it is impossible to interfere with the process of what is happening or when it is not recommended to disrupt the process of a person’s relationship with his environment. This method of research is needed when it is necessary to obtain a complete picture of the situation and most fully note all the changes occurring in the behavior of one person or group of people.

The essential features of the observation method are:

• impracticability or difficulty of secondary observation;
• observation accompanied by excessive emotionality;
• the object of observation is associated with the observer.

When conducting observations, it is necessary to record the obtained data in a protocol and observe the following rules:

• the observation process should in no way influence the ongoing course of events;
• It is better to observe not one person, but a group of people, then the observer has the opportunity to compare;
• Observation must be carried out repeatedly and regularly, taking into account previously obtained data.

Observation stages:

1. Determination of the object, subject or situation that will be observed.
2. Determine the technique used in the observation process and the method of recording the information received.
3. Develop a surveillance plan.
4. Decide on the method by which the recorded data will be processed.
5. Just an observation.
6. Processing and interpretation of received information.

Observation tools include devices that can be used to make audio recordings, photographs and videos, and observation can be carried out directly by the person conducting the research.
Often the observation method is referred to as a type of research such as an experiment, but this is not so, due to the fact that:

• the person conducting the observation does not interfere in any way with what is happening;
• the observer registers only what he observes.

The ethical side of the issue is as follows, according to the rules of the American Psychological Association (APA) - observation must be carried out according to strictly defined rules:

• It is obligatory to obtain consent to participate in the experiment from its participants. The only exception is when conducting surveillance in a public place.
• Eliminate the possibility of causing harm to the participants of the experiment during its conduct.
• Avoid or reduce to a minimum the intrusion into the researcher’s privacy.
• All data obtained about the participants in the experiment is strictly confidential.

Even if you are not a psychologist, you can use this technique to obtain the necessary information about a person, if necessary.

Psychological experiment

An experiment conducted by a researcher in specially created conditions in order to obtain the necessary information about the subject by interfering in his life activities.
In this case, the experimenter constantly changes the conditions of the experiment and evaluates the result obtained. In addition, a psychological experiment can include methods such as testing, questioning, and observation. But it can also be a method independent of others.

According to the method of conducting experiments, there are:

• laboratory method (the ability to change conditions and influence certain facts);
• natural method (carried out under ordinary circumstances, without informing the subject about the experiment);
• psychological and pedagogical method (obtaining skills and specific qualities when learning something);
• pilot method (used as a test study, before the start of the experiment itself).

According to the level of awareness, psychological experiments are divided into the following types:

• Explicit
  - the person participating in the experiment knows about it and is familiar with all the details of its implementation;
• Hidden
  - a person who is not aware of the experiment.
• Combined
  - the participant in the experiment has only some part of the experiment and is deliberately misled.

To organize an experiment, you need to know for what purpose the research is being conducted, with whom and under what circumstances.
A connection is established between the experimenter and the research participant in the form of instructions or the lack thereof. After that, they begin directly to conduct the research itself, at the end of which the information received is processed and the result is announced. As a scientific method, an experiment must meet the following criteria:

• Impartiality in obtaining data.
• Reliability of the information received.
• Validity and suitability of the information received.

However, despite the fact that experiment is one of the most respected methods used to obtain data, it has both positive and negative sides.
Advantages of the method:

• You have the right to choose the starting point when conducting the study.
• There is the right to repeat the experiment.
• It is possible to change the experimental conditions with the possibility of influencing the result.

Disadvantages of the method:

• The complexity of the psyche for experiment.
• Instability and uniqueness of the psyche.
• The psyche has the property of surprise.

It is for these reasons that when performing an experiment, the person conducting the research cannot be guided solely by the data of this method of psychological research; he needs to resort to other methods, combining them and taking into account many different data.
Just as with observation, a psychological experiment must be conducted in accordance with the APA Code of Ethics.

An ordinary person can, quite independently, without the help of a specialist in the field of psychology, conduct independent experiments in everyday life. Of course, the data he obtained during such an experiment will be far from the truth, but it is still possible to obtain certain information.

Remember, when conducting an experiment in the field of psychology on your own, you need to be attentive to others and ensure that you do not harm anyone.

Psychology is about choosing the right words for an incorrectly formed belief. Aishek Noram

Introspection

Monitoring oneself and the individual traits of one’s behavior and character.
This method is used in the form of self-control and is of great importance in psychology and human life. Nevertheless, it should be noted that introspection in most cases can only establish the fact of something, but not the basis (left somewhere, but only God knows where and why). In this regard, self-observation cannot be considered an autonomous and main technique in the process of comprehending the essence of manifestations of the psyche.

The work of this method directly depends on the self-esteem of the individual. This method is most often used by people with low self-esteem and, as a result, when choosing this method, a person begins to engage in self-flagellation, namely delving into himself, feeling guilty, looking for justification for his actions, etc.

In order for this study to be accurate and have results, it is necessary:

• keep a diary;
• compare observations of yourself with observations of others;
• increase self-esteem;
• participate in trainings that promote personal growth and development.

In life, observation is a very working way if a person wants to understand himself, understand why a person acts this way and not otherwise, get rid of complexes and bad habits, and also solve some life problems.

Testing

It is related to the field of psychodiagnostics and studies the psychological qualities and properties of a person through the use of psychological tests.
This technique is most common in psychotherapy, counseling, and also during interviews with employers. This method is necessary when there is the most specific awareness of a person’s personality, which cannot be achieved using other methods.

The main features of psychological tests include:

• Validity
  - the validity and suitability of the information obtained as a result of testing of the feature in relation to which the test was conducted;
• Reliability
  - confirmation of previously obtained results by duplicating the test;
• Reliability
  - even with obviously false answers, the test produces a true result;
• Representativeness
  - compliance with the characteristics of norms.

In order for a test to be effective, it is created using trial and error (changing the number of questions, their edition, text and idea).
The test goes through a multi-level testing and adaptation process. A successful psychological test is a standard control, at the end of which, upon receipt of the results, the opportunity to assess the psychophysiological and personal development, skills, knowledge and abilities of the test participant becomes available based on the summed up results.

Psychological tests are of the following types:

1. Career guidance test - establishes a person’s inclination towards a particular type of activity or indicates the appropriateness and harmony of the position held;
2. Personality tests - help to explore a person’s character, needs, feelings, abilities and other personal qualities;
3. Tests for human mental abilities - examine the level of formation of intelligence;
4. Verbal tests - explore the ability to describe and convey the actions performed by a person using words.
5. Achievement tests assess the degree of mastery of certain knowledge and skills.

In addition to the listed testing methods, there are other test options that contribute to the study of personality and its characteristics.
In addition, this research method can be easily applied to anyone, thereby learning about their potentially hidden capabilities.

Biographical method

This is the study, diagnosis, regulation and planning of a person’s lifelong journey.
Various variations of this method began to form and emerge at the beginning of the twentieth century. In current methods of biographical research, a person is studied based on historical connections and opportunities for personal growth.

In this case, personal information is obtained from the following sources:

• autobiography,
• questionnaire,
• interviewing,
• witness statements,
• analysis of notes, messages, letters, diaries, etc.

This method is used quite often by people at the head of an enterprise, conducting a biography when researching someone’s life, when talking with unfamiliar individuals. The method is easy to use when communicating with a person to obtain any information regarding his life.

Survey

A method based on joint contact between the researcher and the object of study, during which the respondent is asked questions, to which he, in turn, gives answers.
This method is most popular in psychological science. Moreover, the psychologist’s question depends on what data needs to be clarified during the research process. This technique is usually used to find out the necessary information and data not about one specific person, but about a whole group of people.

Surveys are usually divided into the following types:

1. Standardized (classic surveys that can give a total look at the issue of interest);
2. Not standardized (less related to the classical form of the survey, they allow you to master the specific nuances of the problem).

When creating surveys, questions related to the program are first created that only a specialist can understand.
After which they are rephrased into questionnaire questions that are clear to the average person. Polls are:

• Written
  – to obtain shallow information about the problem.
• Oral
  - allow you to break into the deeper layers of human psychology.
• Questioning
  – answers to questions immediately before the conversation itself.
• Personality tests
  are carried out to determine the characteristics of the individual’s psyche.
• An interview
  is a personal conversation.

When forming questions, the following rules must be taken into account:

1. Reticence and isolation.
2. The absence of characteristic words that are concepts of something in psychology.
3. Conciseness and stinginess.
4. Definition.
5. Lack of hints.
6. The questions are designed in such a way as to avoid non-standard answers.
7. Questions have no push-back effect.
8. Questions lack the ability to suggest anything.

Questions are divided into several types regarding the task at hand:

• Open (the configuration of responses in this case is free);
• Closed (answers prepared in advance);
• Subjective (personal in nature relating to a person’s views towards someone or something);
• Projective (about a third person, without mentioning any information about the person being interviewed).

This method helps to determine the needs of the majority or find out their wishes regarding a certain issue.
The technique is very relevant and significant for obtaining important information on topics of interest and concern to most people.

Conversation

One of the types of observation. Refers to an independent method of personality research, the purpose of which is to determine the range of issues that cannot be identified through ordinary observation.

A conversation is a dialogue, the effectiveness of which depends on the following conditions:

1. It is necessary to think about the content of the conversation in advance;
2. Establish contact with the interlocutor;
3. Eliminate all possible unfavorable conditions that could cause inconvenience to the person being studied (tension, wariness, fear, etc.)
4. Clarity of questions for the person being studied;
5. Questions should not in any way indicate the correct answer;
6. During the conversation, the psychologist observes the behavior of the participant in the dialogue and compares his reaction with the answer received to the question;
7. The content of the conversation must be kept in memory or hidden audio or video recordings of the conversation must be kept in order to be able to understand the problem in more detail and analyze it in the future;
8. The conversation should not be recorded openly; such actions may create discomfort for the research participant and cause mistrust;
9. You should watch out for answers that have understatements, reservations, etc.

Conversation helps in obtaining the necessary data first-hand and finding a common language between people. If you approach the organization of this method correctly, you can not only obtain the necessary information, but also get to know the person better, understand him and his actions.

Conversation

Conversation is a form of observation. It can be oral or written. Its goal is to identify a special range of issues that are inaccessible during direct observation. Conversation is widely used in psychological research and has enormous practical significance. Therefore, it can be considered, albeit not the main, but an independent method.

The conversation is conducted in the form of a relaxed dialogue with the person – the object of research. The effectiveness of the conversation depends on the fulfillment of a number of requirements:

• You need to think through the plan and content of the conversation in advance;
• Establish contact with the person being studied;
• Eliminate all moments that can cause discomfort (alertness, tension, etc.);
• All questions asked during the conversation must be understandable;
• Leading questions should not lead to answers;
• During a conversation, you need to observe the person’s reaction and compare his behavior with his answers;
• You should remember the content of the conversation so that you can record and analyze it later;
• Do not take notes during the conversation, because this may cause discomfort, mistrust, etc.;
• Pay attention to the “subtext”: omissions, slips of the tongue, etc.

Conversation as a psychological method helps to obtain information from the “primary source” and establish more trusting relationships between people. With the help of a well-conducted conversation, you can not only get answers to questions, but also get to know your interlocutor better, understand what kind of person he is and “how he lives.”

EXAMPLE:

Everyday. You notice that your close friend has been walking around for days with a drooping and dejected look. He answers questions in monosyllables, rarely smiles, and avoids his usual company. The changes are obvious, but he himself does not comment on it. This person is close to you and his fate is not indifferent to you. What to do? How to find out what is happening and help him? The answer is on the surface - talk to him, have a conversation. Try to find a moment when no one will be around or specifically invite him to have a cup of coffee with you. Do not start the conversation directly - with phrases like: “What happened?” or “Come on, tell me what you have!” Even if you have a good friendly relationship, start the conversation with sincere words that you have noticed changes in him, that he is dear to you and that you would like to help him, advise him something. “Turn” the person towards you. Let him feel that it is REALLY important for you to know what happened and that you will understand him in any case. Most likely, under your kind pressure, your friend will “turn off” his defense mechanism and tell you what’s going on. Almost every person needs other people to take part in their life. It is important to feel that he is not alone and cares. Especially to your friends.

A conversation is always good when there is an opportunity to communicate one-on-one, because it is during a conversation (official or confidential) that you can safely talk about something that, for some reason, you cannot talk about in the hustle and bustle of ordinary affairs.

The methods of theoretical psychology are far from exhausted here. There are many variations and combinations of them. But we got to know the main ones. Now, in order for the understanding of the methods of psychology to become more complete, it is necessary to consider practical methods.

2

Brief description of scientific research methods in psychology

In psychology, there are various classifications of research methods. Let's consider the classification, the criterion of which is the research problem.

1) The task of identifying and describing psychological facts is solved by observation, conversation (questionnaire, survey, interview), and the method of studying the products of activity (study of documents, content analysis).

2) A more complex task of studying patterns, that is, identifying the presence of a stable repeating connection, is solved by experiment (laboratory and natural).

3) The task of identifying mechanisms, i.e. cause-and-effect relationships are solved in psychology by a formative experiment (transformative experiment, experimental-genetic method).

Observation is a systematic, purposeful and in a certain way recorded perception of mental phenomena in the natural conditions of everyday life. This method is one of the most accessible and widely used in psychology.

When conducting observation, certain conditions must be observed:

1. Before any observation, the goal is formulated: what mental manifestation will be studied.

2. Depending on the purpose of the study, an object is selected (a person of the appropriate gender and age) and the situations in which the observation will be carried out.

3. When observing, it is necessary to maintain the natural living conditions of the research object. To do this, you should first become acquainted with the group where the observation will be carried out, and adapt to this environment in 2–3 days. Then the observed behave relaxed and natural.

4. For the same purpose of preserving natural conditions, the researcher does not interfere with the activities of the object of study, who does not know that he is being observed.

5. It must be remembered that social stereotypes can affect the objectivity of recording and processing data. If a positive attitude has been formed towards the object of observation, then the researcher may not notice negative mental manifestations, and if he records them, he will most likely explain them as accidental. And, conversely, with a negative attitude, the researcher may not notice the positive aspects, but concentrate his attention on negative facts and, when interpreting the data, explain them as natural and constant.

6. Observation provides objective data if it is carried out consistently and systematically, i.e. the subject of the study is observed at least 2–3 times in the same types of activities. This is due to the fact that the observed facts are not separated from many incidental phenomena.

7. It is necessary to develop and master in advance ways of recording data in the protocol. One should make a “photographic” record of all psychological facts without distorting or changing them. The protocol sheet is usually divided into two parts. The first part records the observed facts, and the second - their possible interpretation (i.e. interpretation).

The observation method has the following positive features:

· not knowing that he is the object of research, a person behaves freely, naturally, the manifestations of his psyche are not distorted;

· the researcher can see the personality of the observed as a whole, each fact is perceived as part of it;

· observation is not limited by age: it is conducted over all types of activities and behavior of a person of any age.

At the same time, observation has a number of disadvantages:

· observed facts are merged with many associated phenomena;

· the researcher takes a wait-and-see position, not being able to interfere with the activities of the objects of observation. A psychic phenomenon may not manifest itself unless a corresponding situation accidentally arises;

· with the help of observation, it is impossible to quickly collect a large amount of material for two reasons: firstly, one person needs to be observed repeatedly, and secondly, the researcher cannot cause the phenomenon of interest to him, but must wait for it to happen;

· in the process of repeated observation it is impossible to obtain absolutely identical psychological facts, and therefore it is impossible to verify the initially obtained data;

· some subjectivity is possible when observing and processing data. An observer, in the spirit of his expectations, may attribute to a person thoughts and feelings that are unusual for him;

· without the use of special recording tools, it can be difficult to accurately and correctly record observed facts. When recording facts, the researcher records them in a descriptive form, which significantly complicates their processing and interpretation. This method limits the use of mathematical data processing.

Conversation is a method of obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication (i.e., in the process of two-way or multilateral discussion of an issue of interest to the researcher).

The effectiveness of the conversation depends on compliance with the following requirements:

1. Preparing and conducting a conversation includes setting a goal and choosing material for it. Questions for conversation should be clear, concise, specific, not too general, and should not prompt the person to answer.

2. The researcher memorizes the questions and asks them to all respondents in a strictly defined order, seeking detailed answers. It is possible to use clarifying questions if the need arises during the conversation.

3. The conversation is conducted individually in a separate, carefully selected room.

4. Before conducting a conversation, it is necessary to select the object of research and establish a trusting relationship with him. To do this, you can first talk to him about a topic that interests him and only then proceed to pre-written questions. The conversation should be conducted casually, tactfully, unobtrusively and in no case be of the nature of “questioning”. It is very important that the researcher shows the person that he is interested in talking with him and listens to his answers.

5. Methods for recording data are preliminarily developed. It is possible to use technical means (tape recorder, voice recorder). It is allowed to separate the functions of the researcher and the protocolist. The interviewee's answers, his behavior, and emotional manifestations are recorded in detail in the protocol.

The advantages of the conversation are:

· the ability to simultaneously explore many aspects of the human psyche;

· the ability to quickly collect a fairly large amount of material about both one person and a group;

· the researcher is more active than in observation, as he asks questions;

· the possibility of repeated testing in order to clarify changes (for example, age-related);

· Possibility of application at different stages of research.

The conversation method also has disadvantages:

· manifestations of subjectivity, since the selection of material, drawing up questions, getting into contact with the respondent, recording and interpreting answers depend on the skills of the researcher;

· age restrictions in the use of conversation. A child cannot always give an account of his experiences, feelings, explain his preferences and actions, since he is only mastering speech as a means of communication.

A survey is a conversation with a standard set of questions.

The survey can be conducted orally and in writing:

1) interview – a method of obtaining psychological information through oral questioning;

2) questioning (French enquête - list of questions) - obtaining information in the form of written answers from respondents to pre-formulated questions.

Method of analyzing activity products. Various documents, essays, diaries, drawings, other creative works, etc. can be considered as products of activity.

Advantages of this method:

· the ability to collect a sufficiently large amount of factual material from both one person and a group of people in a short time;

· with constant use, the opportunity to obtain qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the mental characteristics of the subjects being studied;

· the possibility of repeated repetition to find out how natural the obtained fact is;

· since the result of mental activity is embodied in a material product, this item can be assessed by an infinite number of people (expert assessment);

· the material product can be stored for a long time;

· maintaining naturalness in the manifestation of the psychological characteristics of the object of study, which does not know that research is being conducted with it.

Disadvantages of the method of analyzing activity products:

· it can be used only when the child has already begun to master a certain type of activity;

· processing the obtained data sometimes turns out to be extremely difficult, since it requires specially developed analysis schemes, which depends on the researcher’s ability to highlight all the psychological features of the resulting product. Then a violation of objectivity and the manifestation of subjectivism is possible, for example, when assessing the degree of originality of the drawing;

When studying documents, a special technique is used, called “content analysis” (literally “content analysis”). This is a fairly formalized method of document analysis, when special “units” are identified in the text. Then the frequency of their use is calculated. It makes sense to use this technique only in cases where the researcher is dealing with a large amount of information and analyzes numerous texts. In practice, this technique in psychology is used in research in the field of mass communications.

An experiment (from the Latin experimentum - test, experience) is the active intervention of a researcher in the life activity of a subject in order to create conditions under which any psychological pattern is discovered.

In psychology, there are two main types of experiments:

· laboratory experiment is carried out in specially equipped premises, which ensures particularly strict control of independent and dependent variables;

· natural experiment - in this case, the subject does not know, has no idea that he is participating in the study (the subject performs his usual activity, and the experimenter is a familiar person to him).

For both types, there are some general rules: the experimenter systematically manipulates one or more independent variables (this is the cause) and records accompanying changes in the behavior of the object being studied, i.e., monitors changes in the dependent variables (this is the effect).

Organization of an experiment requires compliance with a number of conditions:

1. An experiment, like all research methods, requires preliminary setting of a goal and selection of an object.

2. It is necessary to carefully develop a methodology for conducting an experiment and prepare material for research. The material must be manufactured in strict accordance with the recommendations contained in the methodology.

3. The conditions in which the research will be conducted should be prepared in advance.

4. It is necessary to compile and memorize the instructions and description of the experiment procedure in advance. Moreover, it must be remembered that the instructions must be understandable to the subjects.

5. Before conducting an experiment, it is necessary to select a subject and establish friendly, trusting relationships with him. The researcher must win over the subject, which is accompanied by a relaxed, calm conversation, a smile, and approving gestures. You cannot emphasize the unusualness or exclusivity of the situation or take the position of an inspector. It is advisable to give the experimental procedure the character of ordinary friendly communication. Method materials cannot be used to establish contact.

6. It is necessary to react with restraint and evenness to the successes and failures of the subject during the experiment, unless otherwise provided by the research methodology.

7. The pace of the study must correspond to the individual psychological characteristics of the subject.

8. The experiment conducted with a child should not be very long. As a rule, it is limited to 15-20 minutes, unless another time is provided for by the research methodology. Moreover, the younger the child, the shorter the study should be.

9. An experiment always involves a standard procedure, so you cannot make any changes to it, for example, changing the instructions. It is necessary to ensure that the subject understands and accepts the instructions. It can be repeated 2–3 times without changes, but it cannot be explained unless this is provided for by the research methodology. All subjects must be presented with tasks in a strictly uniform manner, with the same intonation and voice strength, without emphasizing any words, except in specially specified cases.

10. The experiment is usually carried out by an experimenter and a protocolist. It is important that the latter is out of the field of view of the subject, but can see and hear him well. In the protocol, he records the behavior, speech and emotional reactions of the subject in accordance with the criteria provided for by the research methodology. We especially emphasize that children’s speech is recorded preserving all its features, without correcting grammatical and other errors. The functions of the protocolist, therefore, are to accurately and completely record psychological facts, the functions of the experimenter are to conduct research.

The experiment has a number of advantages:

· active position of the researcher (he does not wait for the subject to experience the mental phenomenon that he is studying. He himself causes it by creating appropriate conditions);

· the experiment can be repeated, i.e. once again evoke the mental phenomenon being studied, which means checking and clarifying the initially obtained data;

· the experiment allows you to quickly collect a large amount of factual material;

· experiment is a more objective method than observation, since its methodology contains clear criteria for recording and processing data;

· the method of recording data has been significantly simplified, since the phenomenon being studied is separated from a number of life circumstances;

· analysis of the experimental protocol is constructed in accordance with the given sequence of methods. The analysis of the obtained facts can be expressed in numerical terms and subjected to quantitative processing.

The disadvantages of the experiment include the following:

· the experiment requires long and careful preparation. The reliability of the data obtained depends on the experimenter’s ability to set a goal, select material, accurately use instructions, monitor the time and sequence of task completion, the peculiarities of the subject’s reaction, as well as the ability to get into contact with him, and knowledge of methods for statistical processing of the obtained facts;

· the researcher is involved in communication with the subject and can unwittingly influence his behavior. The mental model can influence the facts obtained;

· a holistic picture of the subject’s psyche is not created;

· when conducting a laboratory experiment, the naturalness in the mental manifestations of the subject may disappear.

A formative experiment is a method of tracking changes in the human psyche during the process of the researcher’s active influence on the subject. Having studied the mechanisms, we are able to simulate the phenomenon and actively control it.

Stages of the formative experiment:

1) ascertaining stage (control and experimental groups of subjects participate in it);

2) formative stage (only the control group of subjects participates);

3) control stage (control and experimental groups of subjects participate).

At the ascertaining and control stages, the same research methods are used, which makes it possible to compare the results of these stages with each other, on the basis of which to draw conclusions about changes in the characteristics under study as a result of formative influences.

Suggestion

Suggestion is the process of inserting certain formulas, attitudes, positions or views into the person being studied outside of his conscious control. Suggestion can be direct or indirect communicative (verbal or emotional). The task of this method is to form the required state or point of view. The means of suggestion do not play a special role. The main task is to implement it. That is why emotional imprinting, confusion, distraction, intonation, remarks, and even turning off a person’s conscious control (hypnosis, alcohol, drugs) are widely used during suggestion.

From other appeals (requests, threats, instructions, demands, etc.), which are also methods of psychological influence, suggestion differs in involuntary and automatic reactions, and also in that it does not imply volitional efforts made consciously. In the process of suggestion, everything happens by itself. Suggestions affect every person, but to varying degrees.

There are several types of suggestions:

• Direct – influence through words (orders, commands, instructions);
• Indirect – hidden (intermediate actions, stimuli);
• Intentional;
• Unintentional;
• Positive;
• Negative.

There are different methods of suggestion:

• Techniques of direct suggestion - advice, command, instruction, order;
• Techniques of indirect suggestion - condemnation, approval, hint;
• Techniques of hidden suggestion - providing all options, illusion of choice, truism.

Initially, suggestion was used unconsciously by people whose communication skills had developed to a high level. Today, suggestion plays a huge role in psycho- and hypnotherapy. Very often this method is used in hypnosis or in other cases when a person is in a state of trance. Suggestions have been a part of human life since childhood, because... used in the process of education, advertising, politics, relationships, etc.

EXAMPLE:

A widely known example of suggestion is called the “placebo” effect, the phenomenon of improvement in a patient’s condition when taking a medicine that, in his opinion, has certain properties, when in fact it is a dummy. You can apply this method in practice. If, for example, one of your loved ones suddenly has a headache, give him a simple empty capsule under the guise of a headache remedy - after a while the “medicine” will work and the headache will stop. This is the “placebo” effect.

Conversation method

The essence of the method is that through the analysis of a person’s verbal reactions to specially formulated questions, the researcher studies some phenomena of his psyche. The success of the study depends on the preparedness of the researcher, who thinks through and plans the conversation in advance. Questions must be formulated precisely; questions that are difficult to understand or confusing in nature are not allowed.

The conversation is conducted in a relaxed tone, calmly and friendly, taking into account the age and individual characteristics of the subject. The answers to all questions are accurately recorded using technology, such as a tape recorder. Using this method, specialists study a person’s ideas and concepts about the world around him, interests and inclinations, motives for actions and deeds. Conversation often serves as an auxiliary method in conjunction with observation and experiment.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement is the immediate reaction (positive or negative) of the researcher (or the environment) to the actions of the subject. The reaction must actually be instantaneous, so that the subject immediately has the opportunity to associate it with his action. If the reaction is positive, then this is a sign that you should continue to do or act in a similar way. If the reaction is negative, then vice versa.

Reinforcement can be of the following types:

• Positive – correct behavior/action is reinforced;
• Negative – wrong behavior/action is prevented;
• Conscious;
• Unconscious;
• Natural – happens by accident (burn, electric shock, etc.);
• Intentional – conscious action (education, training);
• One-time;
• Systematic;
• Direct;
• Indirect;
• Basic;
• Secondary;
• Full;
• Partial.

Reinforcement is a huge part of human life. It, like suggestion, has been present in her since childhood in the process of upbringing and gaining life experience.

EXAMPLE:

Examples of reinforcement are around us at every step: if you put your hand in boiling water or try to touch the fire, you will certainly get burned - this is negative spontaneous reinforcement. The dog, following some command, receives a treat and repeats it with pleasure - positive intentional reinforcement. A child who gets a bad grade at school will be punished at home, and he will try not to give any more bad grades, because if he does, he will be punished again - one-time/systematic negative reinforcement. The bodybuilder knows that only regular training will give results - systematic positive reinforcement.

Psychological consultation

Psychological consultation is, as a rule, a one-time conversation between a psychologist and a client, orienting him in the current life situation. It implies a quick start to work, because... The client does not need any special preparation and the specialist, together with him, can understand the circumstances and outline steps to achieve the desired result.

The main problems for which people seek advice from a psychologist are:

• Relationships – jealousy, infidelity, communication difficulties, raising children;
• Individual problems – health, bad luck, self-organization;
• Work - dismissal, intolerance to criticism, low wages.

Psychological consultation consists of several stages:

• Contact;
• Request;
• Plan;
• Setting up for work;
• Implementation;
• Hometasks;
• Completion.

The method of psychological consultation, like any other method of psychology, consists of a combination of both theoretical and practical research methods. Today, there are various variations and types of consultations. Turning to a psychologist for help can be a solution to many life problems and a way out of difficult situations.

EXAMPLE:

The impetus for resorting to psychological consultation can be absolutely any life situation that a person cannot cope with on his own. These include problems at work, troubles in family relationships, depression, loss of interest in life, inability to get rid of bad habits, disharmony, struggle with oneself and many other reasons. Therefore, if you feel that you have been overcome and disturbed by some obsessive thoughts or conditions for a long period of time and you understand that you cannot cope with it alone, and there is no one nearby who could support you, then without a shadow of a doubt and embarrassment, seek help from a specialist. Today there are a huge number of offices, clinics and psychological assistance centers where experienced, highly qualified psychologists provide their services.

This concludes our consideration of the classification of the main methods of psychology. Other (auxiliary) methods include: the method of experimental psychological tests, the method of explanation and teaching, training, coaching, business and role-playing games, counseling, the method of correcting behavior and condition, the method of transforming living and working space and many others.

Any mental process must be considered by psychological science as it really is. And this presupposes its study in close connection with the surrounding world and the external conditions in which a person lives, because they are reflected in his psyche. Just as the reality around us is in constant movement and change, its reflection in the human psyche cannot be unchanged. In order to learn to more deeply understand the features of a person’s inner world, and the essence of things in general, one should come to the realization of the fact that one of the foundations of this understanding is precisely human psychology.

Nowadays, an incalculable amount of materials for studying psychological science and its features is freely available. In order for you not to get lost in all this diversity and know where to start studying, we suggest you familiarize yourself with the works of such authors as A. G. Maklakov, S. L. Rubinstein, Yu. B. Gippenreiter, A. V. Petrovsky, N. A. Rybnikov, S. Buhler, B. G. Ananyev, N.A. Loginova. And right now you can watch an interesting video on the topic of psychological methods:

METHODOLOGY AND METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter 2

METHODOLOGY AND METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Key words: methodology; principle; strategy: method; methodology; problem; chain; an object; item; hypothesis; organizational methods; empirical methods; data processing methods; interpretive methods; non-experimental methods; experimental methods, psychodiagnostic methods, observation, experiment, survey, questionnaire, conversation, interview, analysis of activity products, sociometry, test.

The concept of methodology. Types of methodology

Any science develops dynamically and progressively if it has, on the one hand, creative ideas put forward by scientists, and on the other hand, sufficiently objective, accurate and reliable methods, i.e. those ways, means and methods by which scientific facts are obtained that make it possible to test these ideas.

What is a psychological fact? As the outstanding French scientist Claude Bernard noted, “a fact in itself is nothing; it has meaning only because of the idea with which it is associated or the proof it gives” (Fresse, Piaget, 1966). For example, a certain act of behavior of a child, in which the characteristics of his personality are manifested, can act as a psychological fact. If we observe a group of children, then acts of joint activity of the group, communication between children, manifestations of a common mood, and much more can act as a psychological fact. It is obvious that facts are of interest to the psychologist not in themselves, but as an expression of certain internal psychological patterns.

However, observing a certain psychological fact is not enough. Many parents have a huge store of specific facts from the lives of their children, but this does not make them scientists in the field of, say, child psychology. Even more or less systematized diary entries cannot be considered as scientific works on psychology, but serve only as material for further scientific analysis and interpretation from the point of view of scientific research methodology. In this regard, the question of developing a psychology methodology has always been and remains one of the most pressing.

Methodology (from the Greek methodos - path of research, logos - science) is a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system. Methodology is the study of the scientific method in general and the methods of individual sciences. This is a culture of scientific research.

Methods (from the Greek methodos - the path of research or knowledge) are those techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable information; these are the ways of knowledge through which the subject of any science is known.

The method of psychology is concretized in research methods. Methodology is a specific embodiment of the method as a developed way of organizing the interaction of the subject and object of research on the basis of specific material and a specific procedure. The methodology meets the specific goals and objectives of the study, contains descriptions of the object and the study procedure, a method of recording and processing the data obtained. Based on a specific method, many techniques can be created.

One of the most important tasks of modern psychology is to consider all the variety of methods and techniques used as a single system (i.e., within the framework of a systems approach). Any object must be considered from different angles, using different methods and at different levels of methodological analysis.

From the point of view of methodological analysis, there are three levels of analysis of any phenomenon (Scheme 1).

Scheme 1

Planning and design of the study

Psychological research has several general stages and begins with awareness of the social need to solve a certain problem. Problem situations, which are formulated as tasks of a specific study, arise from general theoretical and practical tasks facing psychology as a science. For example, it is always relevant to study the influence of certain types of activity of an individual on the development of certain aspects of his psyche.

Next, the purpose of the study is defined as the desired end result of the study. The objectives of the research can be theoretical, practical and applied. Depending on the goals, the following types of scientific research are distinguished:

• Theoretical

— a conceptual model of the phenomena being studied is developed, after which the created theory is correlated with the results of other studies.

• Empirical -

is aimed at obtaining and describing the obtained facts within the framework of any one theory.

• Applied -

aimed at solving any applied problem and implementing scientific results.

Figure 4 presents the goals and reasons for the research.

Based on existing problems, a specific goal and theoretical analysis of published literature in the relevant field of psychology, the objectives of a particular study, its object and subject are determined. The object of research is the contingent of subjects that will be studied. The object of research can be an individual, a group of people, communities of people and etc. Therefore, to characterize the object of study it is necessary to answer

Research methods

The concept of method in psychology

A method is a path, a way of cognition through which an object is known

science (S. L. Rubinstein).

Scientific research methods are those techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable information, which is then used to build scientific theories and develop practical recommendations. The strength of science largely depends on the perfection of research methods, on how valid and reliable they are.

All of the above applies to psychology. Its phenomena are so complex and unique, so difficult to study, that throughout the history of this science its successes have directly depended on the perfection of the research methods used. Over time, it integrated the methods of a variety of sciences: philosophy and sociology, physiology and medicine, biology and history, etc.

The method of psychology is a way of understanding internal mental phenomena through the analysis of external psychological factors.

Methods of psychological research reveal a dependence on the basic theoretical principles implemented by psychology and the specific problems that it solves. common goal

of all methods of psychological research lies in the accurate registration, identification, recording of psychological facts, in the accumulation of empirical, experimental data for subsequent theoretical analysis.

Thanks to the use of methods of natural and exact sciences, psychology, starting from the second half of the 19th century, became an independent science and began to actively develop. Until this point, psychological knowledge was obtained mainly through introspection (self-observation), observation of the behavior of other people (for example, diary entries), and speculative reasoning. However, the subjectivity of these methods, their lack of reliability and complexity was the reason that psychology for a long time remained a philosophizing, non-experimental science, capable of assuming, but not proving, cause-and-effect relationships between psychological phenomena.

The intention to make psychological science a more accurate and practically useful science was associated with the introduction of laboratory experiment. Since the second half of the 19th century, attempts have been made to quantify psychological phenomena. One of the first such attempts was the discovery of a series of laws connecting the strength of human sensations with stimuli expressed in physical quantities that affect the body. These include the Bouguer-Weber, Weber-Fechner, and Stevens laws, which are mathematical formulas that help determine the relationship between physical stimuli and human sensations, as well as the absolute and relative thresholds of sensations. The end of the 19th century is considered the initial stage in the development of differential psychological research, in which methods of mathematical statistics began to be used to identify common psychological properties and abilities that distinguish people from each other.

Today, in the course of psychological research, methods such as observation, experiment in its various forms, conversation, analysis of the products of children’s activities, tests and socio-psychological methods are used. As a rule, in specific studies several methods are used that complement and control each other. Specific research methods are based on methodological principles based on the theoretical principles of science. Any research method bears the stamp of one or another theory, which determines both the choice of the object of research and the methods of deciphering the results obtained. Based on the characteristics of the object, subject and objectives of the study, certain variants of the basic methods are developed - methods for studying certain aspects of the development of the child’s psyche. The success of the study largely depends on the methodological ingenuity of the researcher, on his ability to select a combination of techniques that exactly corresponds to the tasks assigned.

2.5.2. Classification of methods

There are several approaches to the classification of psychological research methods. B. G. Ananyev identifies the following 4 groups of methods: i. Organizational methods

include:
comparative method
(comparison of different groups of subjects by age, type of activity, etc.),
longitudinal method
(examination of the same individuals over a long time) and
complex
(representatives of different sciences participate in the study, one object is studied by different means), combining the advantages of both of the above methods.

2. Empirical Methods -

These are methods of collecting primary information. Include:

• observational methods

(observation and self-observation):

« different types of experiment

(laboratory, field, natural, ascertaining, formative);

• psychodiagnostic methods

(standardized tests, projective tests, conversation, interviews, questionnaires, questionnaires, sociometry);

• praximetric methods

- these are techniques for analyzing processes and products of activity): chronometry, cyclography, professiogram, evaluation of products of activity;

• modeling:

• biographical method.

3. Data processing methods

include:
methods of quantitative
(statistical) and
qualitative
(differentiation of material into groups, their analysis)
analysis,
which makes it possible to establish patterns hidden from direct perception.

4. Interpretive methods,

involving various methods of explaining patterns identified as a result of statistical processing of data, and their comparison with previously established facts. These include:

. genetic method

— involves the study of genetic connections (phylogenetic, ontogenetic, genetic and sociogenetic). so-called “in-depth” research;

. structural

(classification, tapologization) method: psychography, typological classification, psychological profile - “breadth” research.

The classification of research methods proposed by B. G. Ananyev is presented in Diagram 7.

A more simplified classification is proposed by I. B. Grinshpun, according to which research methods are divided into non-experimental

(various types of observation, survey, questionnaire, conversation, analysis of activity products),
experimental
(experimental method and its various modifications) and
psychodiagnostic (
various types of tests) (Diagram 8).

R. S. Nemov proposes the following classification of methods: the main methods of psychological research and their variants used to collect primary data are shown in Diagram 9.

The given classifications of research methods are different in their structure, but the content of the methods does not differ.

Scheme 3

Classification of research methods according to R. S. Nemov

2.5.3. Characteristics of methods

1. Non-experimental methods

Observation is a systematic, purposeful, intentional and specially organized perception of phenomena, the results of which are recorded in one form or another by the observer. Observation is the main, most common empirical method in psychology for the purposeful systematic study of a person.

At first, observations by psychologists of their own children appeared, documented in the form of notes and diaries (V. Preyer, V. Stern, J. Piaget, N. A. Rybnikov, N. A. Menchinskaya, V. S. Mukhina, etc.). However, it should be noted that the observations of different authors were carried out for different purposes, as a result of which it is difficult to compare them with each other. Then scientific institutions began to appear where this method was the main one. Thus, P. M. Shchelovanov organized a child development clinic in Leningrad in 1920, in which mainly foundlings and orphans lived, whose development was monitored around the clock.

Attention should be paid to the fact that observation becomes a method of psychological study only if it is not limited to the description of external phenomena (as was the case in the first diary entries), but makes the transition to explaining the psychological nature of these phenomena. The essence of observation is not just the recording of facts, but a scientific explanation of the causes of these psychological facts.

The possibility of using this method of natural sciences in psychology is based on the methodological principle of the unity of consciousness and activity. It is well known that the human psyche is formed and manifests itself in his activities - in actions, words, facial expressions, etc. It is not on the basis of external manifestations that we judge internal processes and states.

Observation in psychological research is used in various ways:

•

observation as an activity

• observation as a method;

• observation as a private technique (technology).

The main features of observation as a method of psychological research are purposefulness and indirectness (observation not directly, but through something). In this case, the researcher does not interfere with the course of the mental manifestations of the subjects, as a result of which they proceed naturally. However, this “non-interventionist” position of the observer has not only positive, but also negative consequences. In particular, not every perception of children’s behavior, even a specially recorded one, can be considered a scientific observation. To become a genuine method of scientific research, observation must be correctly constructed (the purpose and objectives of the study must be clearly formulated).

Disadvantages inherent in observation as a method of scientific research:

• Large time costs due to the passivity of the observer. It is difficult to predict when something important will appear from the point of view of the problem under study; at the same time, some phenomena are completely inaccessible to observation.

• Uniqueness and originality of observed phenomena.

• Difficulty in establishing the cause of a phenomenon (the combination of observed factors with associated phenomena, as well as many unaccounted conditions).

• Subjectivism of the researcher. The danger of subjectivism increases if the researcher not only records in the protocol what he perceives, but also expresses his opinion about what is happening. M. Ya. Basov called this type of recording “interpretive.”

• The need to take into account the cultural and mental characteristics of the object of observation.

• Difficulty in performing statistical data processing.

» Labor intensity. To implement observation, high psychological education of the researcher and a huge investment of time are required. However, this method also has its unconditional disadvantages:

• Universal character.

• Observation flexibility.

• “Modesty” surveillance (at the moment, however, it is outdated, because a video camera is needed).

• Does not distort the natural course of mental processes.

• The wealth of information collected. Thanks to observation, the specific life of a certain person unfolds before the researcher, which can be compared with other specific observations and appropriate conclusions can be drawn.

Observation must be systematic and planned. It is necessary to draw up a detailed program of which people will be observed, on what days and hours of the day the observation will be carried out, what moments of life will be observed, etc., i.e. answer questions about the object and subject of research. Of great importance is the development of an observation scheme, which is drawn up only after a preliminary study of the object and subject of research. The results are recorded in a protocol and then subjected to mathematical processing. All this allows us to overcome, to some extent, the shortcomings of observation as a method.

Currently, to achieve objectivity and accuracy of observation, technical means such as filming, tape recorders, and photography are also used. To clarify the results of observation, a scale is used on which the intensity of a particular mental phenomenon is noted: strong, moderate, weak, etc.

An important methodological problem when carrying out observations is the issue of interaction between the researcher and the subjects: the subject should not know that he has become the object of study, otherwise the naturalness of behavior, which is the main advantage of the method, is lost. The “Gesell's mirror” and participant observation are used as an “invisibility cap” (when the observer becomes a familiar person for the observed, in which they behave naturally).

Depending on the object of observation, the following types are distinguished:

• Self-observation is a method of observing a person about himself based on reflective thinking. The object of self-observation can be goals, motives, and results of activities. This method is the basis of self-reports. The disadvantages of the method include its subjectivity, as a result of which introspection is most often used as an additional method;

• Objective observation (external observation) - observation of another person from the outside.

In psychology, various methods of organizing objective observation can be used (Diagram 10).

Scheme 10

Ways to organize objective observation

Observation as a private technique involves:

• purpose and program of observation;

• presence of object and observation situation;

• categories of observation and recording of results.

It is obvious that specific psychological studies almost never use just one method. Each stage of research requires the use of its own method or a combination of several. Typically, in psychological studies with children who already speak speech, a conversation is used, which makes it possible to establish how the child himself understands this or that situation, what he thinks about it.

Conversation is a non-experimental method of psychological research that involves the direct or indirect accumulation of information through verbal communication. A conversation can be used not only as a method of collecting primary information about a person in the process of communicating with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions, but also as a method of studying and clarifying the individual psychological characteristics of a person (inclinations, interests, degree of education, a person’s attitude to life phenomena, one’s own actions, etc.).

The conversation is characterized by a relatively free plan, mutual exchange of opinions and proposals. It takes place in the form of personal communication according to a specially designed program. The strength of the conversation is the live contact between the researcher and the subject, the ability to individualize questions, vary them, use additional clarifications, and the ability to quickly diagnose the reliability and completeness of answers.

During the conversation, the following styles/ questions can be used:

• orientation-psychological - used to relieve tension, to move from one topic to another;

• filter questions - make it possible to find out some details from the life of the subjects;

• control questions - checking the reliability of the information received.

The advantage of a well-designed conversation or other survey is not only that it produces more reliable results, but also that children's responses can be processed statistically. Thus, during mass surveys, the results of which are then subjected to statistical processing, a standardized conversation with precisely formulated questions is used. Each question has a clear target setting, which then makes it possible to carry out a meaningful interpretation of the answers.

One type of conversation is an interview. This is one of the oldest and most widespread methods of obtaining information about people, which should be understood as systematic actions with a specific scientific purpose, during which the subject should be encouraged to communicate verbal information using a series of conditional questions or verbal stimuli. An interview as a specific form of conversation can be used to obtain information not only about the interviewee himself, who knows about it, but also about other people, events, etc.

The interview can be divided into structured

and
unstructured.
In the first type of interview, questions are carefully formulated and skillfully arranged in the right order. In an unstructured interview, on the contrary, the questions are structured like this. so that the subject has a certain freedom in answering.

Interviews can be taken not only from an individual, i.e. it can be carried out not only in an individual form,

but also in
a group.
A group interview is similar in form to a group discussion.

The interview method can be a rich source of information. However, the interpretation of the data obtained is sometimes subjective and may be influenced by the biases of the interviewer himself. In addition, the personality of the interviewer may subtly influence how open and sincere the subject appears during the interview. The latter fact is associated with possible concealment and distortion of vital information. However, despite this, an interview, especially supplemented with information from more objective sources, is one of the most important methods for assessing personality.

A survey is a way of obtaining information about the individual or group being studied during direct (interview) or indirect (questionnaire, questionnaire) communication between the experimenter and the respondent, i.e. test subject. The purpose of the survey is to identify a person’s opinions, attitudes, and ideas about himself, the people around him, and the phenomena of reality.

Questionnaires will be discussed more fully in the section “Psychodiagnostic methods”.

Questionnaire (questionnaire)

Questioning is an empirical socio-psychological method of obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions that correspond to the main objective of the study.

The questionnaire is a questionnaire containing a system of questions inserted in a certain way, taking into account the content of the questions, the form of their presentation (open, requiring a full, detailed answer, and closed, requiring a “yes” or “no” answer), as well as the number and order. The order of questions is most often determined by the random number method

The survey can be oral or written, conducted in individual or group forms, but in all cases it must meet the requirements of representativeness and homogeneity of the sample.

Analysis of products (results) of activity (creativity) is a research method that allows one to indirectly study the formation of knowledge and skills, interests and abilities of a person based on the analysis of the products of his activity. This is a method of indirect empirical study of a person through deobjectification, analysis, interpretation of material and ideal (texts, music, painting, etc.) products of his activity.

The peculiarity of this method is that the researcher does not come into contact with the subject himself, but deals with the products of his previous activities. The use of this method is based on the methodological principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, according to which the human psyche is only formed, but also manifested in activity.

The study of the products of labor consists in the psychological analysis of various crafts, drawings, essays, creative works, etc. This method is widely used in educational psychology in the form of analysis of essays, notes, comments, speeches, etc., in child psychology - in the form of analysis of drawings, crafts and etc.

Based on the quality of the activity products, one can make a conclusion about the accuracy, responsibility, and accuracy of the subject. Analysis of the quantity and quality of products over a certain period of time makes it possible to detect the period of the highest duration of labor, the onset of fatigue, and draw conclusions about the best mode of work.

Viewing pictures or drawings drawn by the subject can be of significant help in

determining his abilities in artistic creativity, developed skills, and the level of development of creative capabilities. When studying drawings, their plot, content, manner of depiction, as well as the drawing process itself (time spent on drawing, degree of passion), etc. are analyzed.

Sociometry (social measurement) is a research method that allows you to study emotional-immediate relationships within a small group, developed by J. Moreno. The test was modified by Ya. L. Kolominsky. Sociometry serves as a means of obtaining data on how members of a small social group relate to each other on the basis of mutual likes and dislikes.

The main methodological tool of sociometry is the so-called sociometric test (sociometric choice test). It is composed of questions (selection criteria) addressed to each member of a specific social group.

Form of conducting: individual and group. Depending on the age composition of the groups and the specifics of the research tasks, various options for the research procedures themselves are used: “Choice in action”, “Congratulate a friend”. The data obtained during the study is entered into a sociometric matrix, on the basis of which a sociogram is compiled - a special drawing, a diagram reflecting a holistic picture of relationships, mutual and unilateral choices, expected choices, and various relationship coefficients are calculated.

Experimental methods

Experiment is one of the main methods of modern psychology; This is a study in the process of which we ourselves cause the mental phenomena that interest us and create the conditions necessary and sufficient for manifestation and change.

understanding their connections between each other and the circumstances of the child’s life. Experiment -

is a method of collecting facts in specially created conditions that ensure

active manifestation of the phenomena being studied. The experiment is characterized by:

1. Active position of the researcher: this means that the researcher can cause a mental phenomenon as many times as necessary to test the hypothesis:

2 Creation of a pre-thought-out, artificial situation in which the studied property manifests itself best and can be more accurately and easily assessed. Let's look at the main features

experiments in which it differs from

observations.

1. The active position of the researcher himself. He can cause the phenomenon of interest to him as many times as necessary to prove the hypothesis.

2. B

In an experiment, conditions are specially created under which a natural connection is discovered between mental phenomena and the psychological and non-psychological conditions of their occurrence and course.

Multiple repetitions of experiments (series of experiments) and a sufficient number of subjects make it possible to test hypotheses about natural connections between phenomena through the use of special mathematical methods.

The results of each experiment are recorded in a protocol, which provides general information about the subjects, records the nature of the experimental task, the time of the experiment, data about the experimenter, the results of the experiment, both quantitative and qualitative, features of the subjects’ behavior: actions, speech, expressive movements, etc. .

In domestic and foreign psychology, there are different approaches to the types of experiments, so we consider it appropriate to give two classifications - domestic and foreign (Diagram 11).

Scheme 11

Types of experiment

Diagram 12 reflects the specifics of using natural and laboratory experiments.

Scheme 12

Types of experiment

The main features of the experiment are preserved in all its types,

laboratory, natural, formative.

The most accurate and conclusive is a laboratory experiment, which is carried out in a specially equipped room using various instruments and devices. For example, figures are shown on special screens, multi-colored lights light up, and sound signals are given. In this case, the subject often has to press buttons himself, move levers and carry out other response actions. To record psychophysiological indicators, sensors attached to the subject’s body are used.

In laboratory experiments, the characteristics of sensations and perceptions, the speed of reactions to various stimuli, the amount of attention, etc. are studied. In this case, the data here is measured and recorded automatically, with great objectivity and accuracy. However, the disadvantage here is the lack of naturalness and vitality, since the unusual conditions of the laboratory make the subject nervous, as a result of which he may not show the same results as in natural conditions, and the data obtained will be very limited.

In order to make laboratory experiments natural, one of the main methodological techniques of child psychology is used - game modeling of experimental and life situations.

The most productive and widespread in child psychology is the natural experiment. Natural experiment

is
an experiment conducted under normal conditions of learning, life, work, but with a special organization, the influence of which is studied.
A distinctive feature of a natural experiment, according to A.F. Lazursky, is that the subject does not suspect that an experiment is being conducted on him. Thanks to this, he behaves naturally, and the embarrassment and deliberate responses that are often characteristic of a subject in a laboratory experiment disappear. Natural experiments are used in the study of all mental processes and personality traits of subjects.

Formative experiment

IN

In a formative experiment, in contrast to the types of experiment listed above, the put forward hypothesis is tested in the process of active influence on the subject, which leads to the emergence of new psychological qualities or to a change in previously existing ones. This influence may include the creation of special conditions, the use of such methods of training and education, which should lead, according to the researcher’s assumption, to certain changes in the psyche or personality of the subject. The emergence of planned new formations means that we have learned to control a certain aspect of mental development, and the hypothesis put forward has been confirmed. The experiment can be individual or group, short-term or long-term.

1