What are emotions? Classification of emotions in psychology.

A person's list of emotions and feelings includes many mental states that he experiences throughout his life. The table of all these psychological manifestations presented in the article will help to better understand how a person reacts to events in life and why he can feel conflicting emotions at the same time.

Human emotions and feelings for children

Block 1. Emotions. Joy.

Joy is a positive emotional experience that arises in situations with complete satisfaction of current needs.

Joy can be divided into several options:

– Delight – a person is abundantly satisfied with what is happening. The subject's "cup of expectations" is overflowing.

– Actually, joy – the “cup of expectations” is filled as much as planned.

– Laughter – a person suddenly becomes satisfied.

– Satisfaction, “quiet joy” - a person is in a state of calm satisfaction with the fact of the filled “cup of expectations.”

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Block 2. Emotions. Astonishment.

Surprise is an emotional reaction that occurs in a situation of surprise without pronounced evaluative coloring.

Surprise is the shortest reaction, since a person almost immediately begins to “work” on the event and rationalize it. Surprise can be divided into a number of options:

– Amazement – ​​a person finds himself in a situation of extreme surprise. This is often accompanied by a state of shock. The event that occurred does not fit into the cognitive model of the world and contradicts the basic principles and schemes for categorizing an individual’s knowledge.

– Actually, surprise – a person encounters the unexpected in a conditionally objective reality.

– Doubt – a person believes that the cause-and-effect relationship of phenomena, or the source of a certain phenomenon, or structure, or content are not truthful, true.

– Confusion is a human state that arises when faced with distortions of information, inappropriate behavior, compared with standard patterns, samples, the obvious.

Emotional reactions

In some cases, behavior is purely demonstrative in nature; this is determined by its social functions. And the classification of emotions takes this into account, separating them into a separate category. For example, colleagues gathered at a corporate buffet are not necessarily really having fun. But the situation prescribes emotions appropriate to the situation, and people portray them - and often even begin to experience them to some extent.

Of course, sincere joy is much brighter, but such an artificial uplift can also improve your mood. Likewise, the grief that is usually demonstrated when talking about a misfortune that happened to a stranger is mostly feigned; few people actually feel upset in this case. But a residue still remains. Such demonstrative manifestations with partial involvement are called emotional actions - as opposed to sincere emotional reactions.

Block 3. Emotions. Sadness.

Sadness is a negative emotional state that arises in a situation of inability to satisfy key life support needs.

Sadness manifests itself in the present in relation to past events, when there was a loss of access to target resources, or predictively to the future, when the inability to gain access to valuable resources is expected. There are also several options for sadness:

– Grief/grief – this experience is associated with the loss of primarily a living being that was of great value to a person.

– Longing – this experience is characterized by a long period when a person cannot satisfy his own needs and this stimulates him to change this situation.

– Dejection – a person is in a state of passive contemplation of the lack of access to subjectively significant target resources.

– Actually, sadness – a person suffers due to not getting what he wants.

– Sadness – this experience represents the mildest degree of sadness. Usually accompanies the loss of access to a result whose value is not significant.

Main types of feelings and emotions

Emotions are a certain reaction to external factors in psychology. In this case, a person may demonstrate a desire or reluctance to take part in ongoing events. He is also able to show others his inner state. It could be anxiety, love, joy.

Such reactions depend on the subjective assessment of current events. It has been established that the feelings that a person experiences are associated with his attitude towards himself. They are influenced by their internal state. The state of the nervous system is also of great importance. That is why people react differently to the same events.

Depending on the symptoms, there are the following types of emotions and feelings in psychology:

1. Positive – provide a charge of good emotions. This group includes joy and rejoicing. Positive emotions also include joy or interest.
2. Negative - have a negative charge. This category includes a wider range of feelings. It could be guilt, anger, resentment. Negative emotions include uncertainty, melancholy, and fear.
3. Neutral - can have a negative or positive connotation, but do not have a pronounced emotional connotation or serious manifestations. This group includes surprise or curiosity.

Each type of feeling in psychology is characterized by specific verbal signs - speech, gestures, intonation. To keep emotions under control, you need to understand which of them took over at one time or another.

Despite the variety of ways of expression, there are 4 basic types of emotions in psychology. These include joy, anger, fear and sadness. Each variety has certain subspecies. The degree of their expression depends on the characteristics of the individual and the specific situation.

So, emotions in psychology are divided into the following types:

1. Joy. Subtypes of this emotion include hope, delight, happiness, and interest. Also included in this category are jubilation, anticipation, and acceptance. Such feelings manifest themselves in the form of laughter, a relaxed state, a smile, and a sparkle in the eyes. A person may feel the need for a hug, he is ready to help, holds his palms open.
2. Sadness. This concept of emotions and feelings in psychology includes melancholy, despondency, a feeling of hopelessness, and laziness. This category often includes pity, regret, and sadness. This condition is accompanied by absent-mindedness in the gaze, weakness of the hands and breathing. The person’s voice becomes muffled and his gaze becomes extinguished. Often the corners of the lips droop and the shoulders rise.
3. Fear. This category of emotions and feelings in psychology includes horror, anxiety, guilt, and confusion. They also include suspicion, anxiety, and uncertainty. The main symptoms include increased tension, trembling voice, chest pain, the need to hide or leave. A person may open their eyes wide and goosebumps appear on the skin.
4. Anger. Such feelings in psychology include anger, arrogance, and denial. This group also includes irony, indignation, discontent, and rage. Emotions manifest themselves in the form of an evil glint in the eyes, clenching of palms, and a glance from under their brows. When a person experiences such feelings, he may bulge or, conversely, squint his eyes and draw his eyebrows together.

Block 4. Emotions. Anger.

Anger is a negative emotional state, most often occurring in the form of affect, caused by sudden circumstances that block the satisfaction of a need that is absolutely important for a person.

It is not at all necessary that the circumstances occur in reality; anger may arise as a result of one’s own conclusions.

The causes of anger are very different.

1. It could be a “traffic jam” on the road, due to which a person is late for his business, i.e. obstacles and blocks arise that prevent you from gaining access to target resources.

2. In a “traffic jam” on the road, a neighboring driver can make a dangerous maneuver and block a person’s car, after which he can jump out of the cabin of his own “four-wheeled friend” with the intention of punishing the “offender” and rush to the enemy’s car. As a result, the target person categorizes events as a threat to his property or even health, life, and he himself rushes with a gun at the potential offender in anger. Anger comes from threat.

3. In the same traffic jam, a driver passing by may call a person an offensive bad word, which will be perceived as an insult and will also cause anger.

4. The car in front, instead of moving in a straight direction, because there is a gap in the traffic jam, continues to “cling to the wheels” of the place. The driver begins to feel angry towards the “slow motorist” because the situation seems inadequate and does not meet expectations.

5. In a traffic jam, the driver of a neighboring car can shout loudly, being in a state of anger and “infect” other drivers with his condition as if with a virus.

6. A car passing by at speed can splash mud on a person’s just washed “iron horse,” which will again cause anger, since a relatively comfortable state is disrupted.

7. A luxury car with prestigious license plates driving in the same direction in the oncoming lane, avoiding a traffic jam, is also capable of causing anger with its “unfair behavior” and claims to exclusivity.

8. Finally, anger can be directed against oneself when a person finds himself in a traffic jam, instead of looking at an electronic map in advance on his smartphone that displays the current traffic situation and choosing a different path.

Anger can also be represented in different ways:

– Rage is the highest manifestation of anger. A person almost loses the ability to control his own behavior.

– Anger/anger itself is a person’s experience of strong tension, accompanied by a desire to destroy the cause that gave rise to discomfort.

– Indignation is a person’s experience of injustice towards himself and “THIS OWN”.

– Resentment is a mild form of anger . This experience usually arises as a person’s reaction to a stimulus, which is not realized “HERE AND NOW” in a worthy response to the offender. A protracted character arises. This is anger extended over time.

Izard's Differential Emotions - Table

K. Izard identified the following basic human emotions:

1. Interest . Since a person has a social way of life, interest is one of the most frequently experienced feelings for him. Thanks to it, the individual acquires new skills, abilities, and knowledge. Interest helps him develop, both physically and intellectually. It is of particular importance as it influences the development of both the individual and society as a whole.
2. Pleasure .
   In some sources it is also called “joy.” It is characterized by a positive background and arises as a result of the opportunity to satisfy a need that is relevant to the individual or its direct satisfaction. It is of great importance for a person, it increases his self-confidence, facilitates the process of interaction with others, helps to get rid of negativity and stress.
3. Astonishment . It does not have any color and appears as a reaction to a sudden phenomenon or action. The main task of surprise is to prepare the individual for the unexpected and to focus his attention on this event.
4. Anger . A negative state that mainly arises due to the inability to satisfy a need that is significant for the individual or failure on the path to its satisfaction. May also be caused by deception or insult. Anger has an uncontrollable form - rage, which arises with maximum dissatisfaction with the current circumstances.
5. Disgust . A negative state of a person that appears as a result of interaction with something or someone unpleasant. Disgust is characterized by a strong desire to get rid of the factors that directly provoke it.
6. Contempt . Appears due to disagreements between the existing beliefs and actions of one individual with the beliefs and actions of another. Its function is to make a person feel better than the one at whom his contempt is directed.
7. Shame.
   Arises as a result of a discrepancy between appearance or behavior and one’s own beliefs and the opinion of society. Based on this state, a feeling of helplessness appears, which is very unpleasant for a person.
8. Guilt . It arises on the basis of an individual’s condemnation of his own actions. Accompanied by self-doubt, as well as feelings of shame and remorse.
9. Fear. Represents a negative state. It appears as a result of receiving information about a threat to a person’s life, both real and imaginary. It is of great importance as it affects the appearance, behavior and thinking of an individual.
10. Grief . It is a reaction to negative situations that have arisen in life, which can be permanent or temporary. Very often it acts as a moderate motivation for an individual to begin solving the problems that he has accumulated.

K. Izard also developed a scale of differential emotions. It is used to diagnose the dominant emotional state in a person. For this purpose, a scale of the significance of emotions is used, which looks like this:

Emotion		State			Sum of points
C1	Interest	Attentiveness	Concentration	Composure
C2	Joy	Pleasure	Happy	Glad
C3	Astonishment	Astonishment	Amazement	Defeat
C4	Grief	Dejection	Sadness	Brokenness
C5	Anger	Excitation	Anger	Madness
C6	Negation	Dislike	Disgust	Disgust
C7	Contempt	Contempt	Neglect	Arrogance
C8	Fear	Fright	Fear	Panic
C9	Shame	Shyness	Timidity	Shyness
C10	Guilt	Regret	Guilt	Repentance

Participants are asked to rate their well-being on a 4-point scale (that is, each column of the table presented above) at the moment, where:

1 - not suitable at all;

2 - rather true;

3 - true;

4 is absolutely correct.

After this, the sum of points is calculated for each line in the table and the well-being coefficient (KS) is calculated according to the following formula:

KS = (C1 + C2 + C3 + C9 + C10) / (C4 + C5 + C6 + C7 + C8)

If the final value is greater than 1, then the state of health can be characterized as positive; if, on the contrary, it is less than 1, then the emotional state is negative, and there may even be a depressive state.

Block 5. Emotions. Disgust.

Disgust is a negative emotional state that arises upon contact with objects, subjects, phenomena, characterized by antagonistic rejection due to differences in assessments and principles from a moral, ethical, ideological position.

Disgust is closely related to food, water, i.e. with those resources that need to be regularly replenished throughout life. The quality of food, its edibility, and usefulness are factors of high importance for a prosperous existence.

Disgust in the process of evolution contributed to the survival of individuals and species. This emotional experience is a signal that regulates the suitability of the product for subsequent consumption, establishing contact, or categorical denial.

Disgust is no less influenced by sociocultural factors that differentiate acceptable forms of behavior from those that are categorically unacceptable and disgusting.

Disgust helps a person to reject something that can cause him harm or damage. In disgust, the subject strives to break off contact with the object and refuse future encounters. People of different religious faiths may be disgusted by “ALIENS”, for example, “infidels”. The subject perceives a colleague at work who has committed an immoral act as a disgusting person. Disgusting foods cause nausea and vomiting. Disgust intensifies as the internal dialogue associated with the “bad” object and situations in general intensifies.

Emotional states and their classification presentation for a lesson on the topic

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Topic: “Emotional states and their classification” COURSE WORK for a student at the faculty of advanced training of teaching staff, department “Mathematics”, course 1 Psychology (general, developmental, social) Olga Vasilievna Vasilyeva

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1.1 Relevance of the problem Life without emotions is just as impossible as without sensations. Emotions accompany a person throughout his life. Emotions, argued the famous naturalist Charles Darwin, arose in the process of evolution as a means by which living beings establish the significance of certain conditions to satisfy their actual needs. Thanks to emotions, we understand each other better, we can, without using speech, judge each other’s states and better tune in to joint activities and communication. Many emotional states are inherent in a person from birth. Already a newborn is capable of experiencing fear when hearing a strong sound or sudden loss of support, discomfort when movements are limited, and pleasure that arises in response to rocking and stroking. Gradually, from these “seeds” the entire wealth of human emotions grows.

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1.2 Goals and objectives The purpose of the work is to determine the relationship between emotions and a person’s personality, to study the psychological basis of emotional states. The task is to characterize and classify emotions, in the course of work, become familiar with the research of famous psychologists who put forward theories of the origin of emotions, and also provide ways to eliminate negative emotional states.

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Concept of emotions. Types and role of emotions in human life Since the time of Plato, all mental life has been divided into three relatively independent entities: mind, will and feelings or emotions.[1] If the mind and will are to some extent subordinate to us, then emotions always arise and act independently of our will and desire. The concept of “human emotion” is so complex that a laconic definition cannot fully reveal its essence.

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2.1 The concept of “human emotion”. Types and role of emotions in human life Emotion is something that is experienced as a feeling that organizes and directs perception, thinking and action. Each aspect of this definition is extremely important for understanding the nature of emotions. Emotion mobilizes energy, and this energy is in some cases felt by the subject as a tendency to perform an action. Emotion guides the mental and physical activity of an individual and directs it in a certain direction. Emotions are a person’s experience of his personal relationship to certain phenomena of the surrounding reality, as well as a subjective state that arises in the process of interaction with the environment or when satisfying his needs. Emotions are a unique form of reflection of the real process of human interaction with the environment. If sensations, perceptions, ideas, and thinking reflect the objective world of objects, phenomena, their various qualities and properties, dependencies and patterns, then in emotions a person shows his attitude to the content of the cognizable in the form of pleasure or displeasure, joy, sadness, fear, delight and etc. For example, a rejoicing person gesticulates, children jump and clap their hands, sing and laugh. If joy gives a feeling of lightness, up to the experience of a feeling of flight, then in grief there is a feeling of heaviness; the more tense a person is, the less his ability to enjoy and feel happiness. Sadness paralyzes a person. He feels tired and moves slowly. Perhaps the most accurate signal of a change in emotional state is the pulse rate. Emotions can range from violent outbursts of passion to subtle shades of mood.

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Emotional states Currently, various emotional states are distinguished. “Anxiety”, “tension”, “frustration”, etc. These concepts are not clearly differentiated, since there are no clear criteria for emotional states - mental, nervous, functional, etc. The lack of differentiation and imprecision of the concepts is reflected in the definition of emotions. According to the definition given in the “Psychological Dictionary” (1983), “emotions (from the Latin emoveo - exciting, shaking) are a special class of mental processes and states associated with instincts, needs and motives, reflecting in the form of direct experience ( satisfaction, joy, fear, etc.) the significance of the phenomena and situations affecting the individual for the implementation of his life activities.” There are many classifications of emotions. They are divided into positive and negative, using the criterion of mobilizing the body's resources, sthenic and asthenic emotions (from the Greek "stenos"). Thethenic emotions increase activity, causing a surge of energy and uplift, while asthenic emotions act in the opposite way. According to needs, lower emotions associated with the satisfaction of organic needs, the so-called general sensations (hunger, thirst, etc.) are distinguished from higher emotions (feelings), socially conditioned, associated with social relations. Based on the strength and duration of manifestations, several types of emotions are distinguished: affects, passions, emotions themselves, moods, feelings and stress. K. Izard identified the main, “fundamental emotions.” Interest (as an emotion) is a positive state that promotes the development of skills and abilities, the acquisition of knowledge, and motivating learning. Joy is a positive emotional state associated with the ability to sufficiently satisfy an urgent need, the likelihood of which was low until this moment. Surprise is an emotional reaction to unexpected circumstances. Surprise inhibits all previous emotions, directing attention to the object that caused it, and can turn into interest. Suffering is a negative emotional state associated with information received about the impossibility of satisfying the most important needs of life, which until that time seemed more or less probable. Most often it occurs in the form of emotional stress. Anger is a negative emotional state, occurring in the form of affect, caused by an obstacle to the satisfaction of a need that is extremely important for the subject. Disgust is a negative emotional state caused by objects, contact with which comes into sharp conflict with the ideological, moral or aesthetic principles and attitudes of the subject. Contempt is a negative emotional state that arises in interpersonal relationships and is generated by inconsistency of life positions, views and behavior with the positions of the object of feelings. Fear is a negative emotion that appears when a subject receives information about a possible threat to his well-being in life, about a real or imagined danger. Shame is a negative emotional state, expressed in the awareness of the inconsistency of one’s own thoughts, actions and appearance not only with the expectations of others, but also with one’s own ideas about appropriate behavior and appearance. From the combination of fundamental emotions, complex emotional states arise, such as anxiety, which can combine fear, anger, guilt and interest. Each of these emotions underlies a whole spectrum of states that vary in degree of expression (for example, joy, satisfaction, delight, jubilation, ecstasy, and so on).

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Sergei Leonidovich Rubinstein (1889 - 1960) - Soviet psychologist and philosopher. Affect is the most powerful emotional reaction that completely captures the human psyche. This emotion usually arises in extreme conditions when a person cannot cope with the situation. Distinctive features: situational, generalized, short duration and high intensity. The body is mobilized, movements are impulsive. Affect is practically uncontrollable and is not subject to volitional control. A distinctive feature of affect is the weakening of conscious control, narrowness of consciousness. The affect is accompanied by strong and erratic motor activity, and a kind of discharge in action occurs. In passion, a person seems to lose his head, his actions are not reasonable, they are committed without taking into account the situation. Extremely strong excitation, having crossed the limit of the nerve cells' performance, is replaced by unconditional inhibition, and emotional shock occurs. As a result, the affect ends in loss of strength, fatigue and even stupor. Impaired consciousness can lead to an inability to subsequently remember individual episodes and even complete amnesia for events. Passion is a strong, persistent, long-lasting feeling that captures a person and owns him. In strength it is close to affect, and in duration it is closer to feelings. A person can become the object of passion. S.L. Rubinstein wrote that “passion is always expressed in concentration, concentration of thoughts and forces, their focus on a single goal... Passion means impulse, passion, orientation of all aspirations and forces of the individual in a single direction, concentrating them on a single goal.” Emotions themselves are situational in nature, express an evaluative attitude towards current or possible situations, and can be weakly manifested in external behavior, especially if a person skillfully hides his emotions. Moods are a state that colors our feelings, our general emotional state, over a significant period of time[. Unlike emotions and feelings, mood is not objective, but personal; it is not situational, but extended over time. Mood is an emotional reaction not to the immediate consequences of certain events, but to their meanings for a person’s life in the context of his general life plans, interests and expectations. Noting the peculiarities of mood, S.L. Rubinstein pointed out, firstly, that it is not objective, but personal, and, secondly, this is not a special experience dedicated to some particular event, but a diffuse, general state.

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Feelings are the most stable emotional states. They are objective in nature: it is always a feeling for something or someone. They are sometimes called “higher” emotions because they arise when higher-order needs are satisfied. In the individual development of a person, feelings play an important socializing role. On the basis of positive emotional experiences such as feelings, the needs and interests of a person appear and are consolidated. Feelings, one might say, are a product of the cultural and historical development of man. They are associated with certain objects, activities and people surrounding a person. In relation to the world around us, a person strives to act in such a way as to reinforce and strengthen his positive feelings. For him, they are always connected with the work of consciousness and can be voluntarily regulated. Feelings are a person’s relationship to objects and phenomena of reality, experienced in various forms.

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. Psychological theories of emotions Charles Robert Darwin (1809 - 1882) Numerous physiological changes in the body are accompanied by any emotional state. Throughout the history of the development of this area of ​​psychological knowledge, attempts have been made more than once to connect physiological changes in the body with certain emotions and to show that the complexes of organic signs accompanying various emotional processes are really different. The desire to find the root cause of emotional states led to the emergence of different points of view, which are reflected in the corresponding theories [1]. In 1872, Charles Darwin published the book “The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals,” which was a turning point in understanding the connection between biological and psychological phenomena, in particular, the body and emotions. It was proven that the evolutionary principle is applicable not only to the biophysical, but also to the psychological and behavioral development of living things, that there is no impassable gap between the behavior of animals and humans. Darwin showed that anthropoids and children born blind have much in common in the external expression of different emotional states and in expressive bodily movements. These observations formed the basis of the theory of emotions, which was called evolutionary. Emotions, according to this theory, appeared in the process of evolution of living beings as vital adaptive mechanisms that contribute to the adaptation of the organism to the conditions and situations of its life. The bodily changes that accompany various emotional states, in particular those associated with the corresponding emotions of movement, according to Darwin, are nothing more than the rudiments of real adaptive reactions of the body.

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The James-Lange concept The modern history of emotions begins with the James-Lange theory, according to which the root causes of emotions are organic (physical, bodily) changes. W. James and K. Lange formulated the so-called peripheral theory of emotions. They believed that emotions are caused only by peripheral changes and, in fact, are reduced to them. According to this point of view, first, under the influence of external stimuli, changes characteristic of emotions occur in the body, and only then, as a consequence, does the emotion itself arise. The emergence of this theory led to a simplified understanding of the mechanisms of voluntary regulation. For example, it was believed that unwanted emotions such as grief or anger could be suppressed by engaging in actions that would normally result in positive emotions. The psychoorganic theory of emotions (as the concepts of James-Lange and Cannon-Bard can be conventionally called) was further developed under the influence of electrophysiological studies of the brain.

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Theory of W. Cannon. An alternative point of view was expressed by W. Cannon, who drew attention to the fact that the bodily reactions that arise during various emotions are very similar to each other and are not so diverse as to satisfactorily explain the qualitative differences in the highest emotional experiences of a person. Bodily processes during emotions, according to Cannon, are biologically expedient, since they serve as a preliminary adjustment of the entire organism to a situation when it will be required to expend increased energy resources. Emotional experiences and corresponding organic changes arise in the same center - the thalamus. Later, P. Bard showed that of all brain structures, it is not the thalamus itself that is associated with emotions, but the hypothalamus and the central part of the limbic system. Cannon's strongest counterargument to the James-Lange theory was the following: artificially induced cessation of the flow of organic signals into the brain does not prevent the occurrence of emotions. Cannon's provisions were developed by P. Bard, who showed that in fact both bodily changes and the emotional experiences associated with them arise almost simultaneously.

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Concept of Hebbu D.O.D.O. Hebb was able to experimentally obtain a curve expressing the relationship between the level of emotional arousal of a person and the success of his practical activity. To achieve the highest results in activity, both too weak and very strong emotional arousals are undesirable. For each person (and in general for all people) there is an optimum of emotional excitability, which ensures maximum efficiency in work. The optimal level of emotional arousal, in turn, depends on many factors: on the characteristics of the activity we perform, on the conditions in which it takes place, on the individuality of the person involved in it, and on much more. Too weak emotional arousal does not provide proper motivation for activity, and too strong one destroys it, disorganizes it and makes it practically uncontrollable. In humans, in the dynamics of emotional processes and states, cognitive-psychological factors play no less a role than organic and physical influences (cognitive means related to knowledge). In this regard, new concepts have been proposed that explain human emotions by the dynamic features of cognitive processes. One of the first such theories was the theory of cognitive dissonance by L. Festinger. According to it, a positive emotional experience occurs in a person when his expectations are confirmed and cognitive ideas come true, i.e. when the real results of activity correspond to the intended ones, are consistent with them, or, what is the same, are in consonance. Negative emotions arise and intensify in cases where there is a discrepancy, inconsistency or dissonance between the expected and actual results of activity. The dominant cognitivist orientation of modern psychological research has led to the fact that conscious assessments that a person gives to a situation are also considered as smociogenic factors. It is believed that such assessments directly influence the nature of the emotional experience.

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The concept of emotions proposed by S. Schechter. S. Schechter contributed to what was said about the conditions and factors for the emergence of emotions and their dynamics by W. James, K. Lange, W. Cannon, P. Bard, D. Hebb and L. Festinger. He showed that a person’s memory and motivation make a significant contribution to emotional processes. The concept of emotions proposed by S. Schechter was called cognitive-physiological. According to this theory, the emerging emotional state, in addition to the perceived stimuli and the bodily changes generated by them, is influenced by a person’s past experience and his assessment of the current situation from the point of view of his current interests and needs. Indirect confirmation of the validity of the cognitive theory of emotions is the influence on a person’s experiences of verbal instructions, as well as that additional emotional information that is intended to change a person’s assessment of the situation that has arisen.

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Methods for studying emotional processes. Since the emergence of emotions is associated with changes in physiological parameters, it is natural for researchers diagnosing the presence of a particular emotional state to rely on these “objective” indicators. Among the vegetative indicators, the most commonly used are heart rate, blood pressure and galvanic skin response, less often - gas exchange and energy expenditure. O.V. Ovchinnikova and N.N. Naenko used skin temperature indicators on the fingers to measure emotional tension. The temperature of the fingers, from their point of view, makes it possible to differentiate emotional stress from operational stress: with the first, the temperature is lowered, with the second, it is increased. Yu.M. Zabrodin et al. developed a method for assessing personal and situational anxiety by assessing time intervals. Two indicators are calculated: the average relative error is calculated as the ratio: G = S - O / O where O is the objective duration of the time interval, and S is a subjective assessment. Standard deviation (G), i.e. spread of the error value in a block of presented intervals. The sign and magnitude of the average error, the spread of which lies in the area of ​​minimal changes in G, indicate the level of personal anxiety: a negative error value indicates a low level, a positive one indicates a high level. As the spread of the relative error increases and G goes beyond this area, the value of the average error indicator makes it possible to judge situational anxiety. A decrease in error with increasing G indicates a decrease in situational anxiety, and a simultaneous increase in error and G indicates its increase.

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Neither behavior nor various psychological and physiological indicators, taken separately, can reliably differentiate one state from another, since, for example, an increase in heart rate or a shortening of reaction time can be observed in various emotional states. No real ways to diagnose the conditions are given. V.L.Marishchuk gives 49 groups of indicators with the help of which states can be assessed. The choice of indicators should be purposeful, reflecting the reaction of important blocks of an integral functional system. Before you begin diagnosing an emotional state, you need to know its structural model: what arises from what and what the recorded shift is aimed at. Some researchers try to use as many indicators as possible when diagnosing a condition, thereby ensuring completeness of information. However, it is quite possible to get by with four or five indicators, provided that they reflect all the blocks of an integral functional system necessary for a given reaction. Thus, a systematic approach to diagnosing emotional states allows you to select the optimal number of methods and indicators necessary for diagnosis.

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The concept of the dual nature of emotions Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (September 14 (26), 1849, Ryazan - February 27, 1936, Leningrad) The cerebral cortex plays a leading role in the regulation of emotional states. I.P. Pavlov showed that it is the cortex that regulates the flow and expression of emotions, keeps under its control all phenomena occurring in the body, has an inhibitory effect on the subcortical centers, and controls them. The second signaling system plays a significant role in a person’s emotional experiences, since experiences arise not only from the direct influences of the external environment, but can also be caused by words and thoughts. The concept of the dual nature of emotions is the most correct. Physiological changes are one of two components of emotions, and a very non-specific component. A number of physiological reactions manifest themselves during both positive and negative emotions, for example, the heart can beat not only from fear, but also from joy, the same is true for breathing rate and many other reactions.

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. The specificity of emotion is given by the subjective coloring of experiences, thanks to which we will never confuse fear with joy, despite the similarity of some of the physiological reactions accompanying them. Subjective experience of emotion, i.e. its qualitative feature is called the modality of emotion. The modality of emotions is the subjectively experienced fear, joy, surprise, annoyance, anger, despair, delight, love, hatred, etc. Thus, each emotion consists of two components - an impressive one, characterized by the experience of the subjective uniqueness of a given emotion, and an expressive one - involuntary reactions of the body, including reactions of internal organs and systems, undifferentiated muscle reactions (trembling, increased tone), as well as the so-called expressive movements that, among other things, have a communicative, signaling nature (scream, facial expressions, posture, voice intonation).

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Methods for studying emotional processes Since the emergence of emotions is associated with changes in physiological parameters, it is natural for researchers diagnosing the presence of a particular emotional state to rely on these “objective” indicators. Among the vegetative indicators, the most commonly used are heart rate, blood pressure and galvanic skin response, less often - gas exchange and energy expenditure. O.V. Ovchinnikova and N.N. Naenko used skin temperature indicators on the fingers to measure emotional tension. The temperature of the fingers, from their point of view, makes it possible to differentiate emotional stress from operational stress: with the first, the temperature is lowered, with the second, it is increased. Yu.M. Zabrodin et al. developed a method for assessing personal and situational anxiety by assessing time intervals. Two indicators are calculated: the average relative error is calculated as the ratio: n = S - O / O where O is the objective duration of the time interval, and S is a subjective assessment. Standard deviation (G), i.e. spread of the error value in a block of presented intervals. The sign and magnitude of the average error, the spread of which lies in the area of ​​minimal changes in G, indicate the level of personal anxiety: a negative error value indicates a low level, a positive one indicates a high level. As the spread of the relative error increases and G goes beyond this area, the value of the average error indicator makes it possible to judge situational anxiety. A decrease in error with increasing G indicates a decrease in situational anxiety, and a simultaneous increase in error and G indicates its increase.

Slide 19

The connection between emotions and human needs Emotions, no matter how different they may seem, are inseparable from personality. F. Kruger wrote: “What makes a person happy, what interests him, what makes him despondent, what excites him, what seems funny to him, most of all characterizes his essence, his character, his individuality.” S.L. Rubinstein that in the emotional manifestations of a person three spheres can be distinguished: her organic life, her interests of a material order and her spiritual and moral needs. He designated them respectively as organic (affective-emotional) sensitivity, objective feelings and generalized ideological feelings. Affective-emotional sensitivity, in his opinion, includes elementary pleasures and displeasures, mainly associated with the satisfaction of organic needs. Object feelings are associated with the possession of certain objects and the pursuit of certain types of activities.

Slide 20

A person's emotions are primarily related to his needs. The relationship between emotions and needs is far from clear. In an animal that has only organic needs, the same phenomenon can have a positive and negative meaning due to the diversity of organic needs: the satisfaction of one can be to the detriment of another. Therefore, the same course of life can cause both positive and negative emotional reactions. This attitude in humans is also less clear. Human needs are no longer reduced to organic needs alone; he develops a whole hierarchy of different needs, interests, and attitudes. Due to the diversity of needs, interests, and personal attitudes, one and the same action or phenomenon in relation to different needs can acquire different and even opposite – both positive and negative – emotional meaning. The same event can have both a positive and a negative sign. Hence, there is often inconsistency, duality of human feelings, their ambivalence.

Slide 21

The importance of emotions in human life Emotions play an extremely important role in people's lives. Today no one denies the connection between emotions and the functioning of the body. It is well known that under the influence of emotions the activity of the circulatory, respiratory, digestive organs, endocrine and exocrine glands and other organs changes. Excessive intensity and duration of experiences can cause disturbances in the body. M.I. Astvatsaturov wrote that the heart is more often affected by fear, the liver by anger, and the stomach by apathy and a depressed state. The occurrence of these processes is based on changes occurring in the external world, but affects the activity of the entire organism. For example, during emotional experiences, blood circulation changes: the heartbeat quickens or slows down, the tone of blood vessels changes, blood pressure increases or decreases, and so on. As a result, during some emotional experiences a person blushes, during others he turns pale. The heart reacts so sensitively to all changes in emotional life that people considered it to be the seat of the soul, the sense organ, despite the fact that changes occur simultaneously in the respiratory, digestive, and secretory systems. Under the influence of negative emotions, a person may develop prerequisites for the development of various diseases. Conversely, there are many examples where the healing process is accelerated under the influence of an emotional state. In this case, there is a verbal impact on the emotional state of the patient. This manifests the regulatory function of emotions and feelings.

Slide 22

Wine's conscience, in accordance with the theory of differential emotions, plays a key role in the process of developing personal and social responsibility, in the process of developing conscience. The development of guilt and the formation of conscience are the most important stages in the psychological maturation of the individual. Conscience is connected both with a person’s moral stability and with his acceptance of moral obligations to other people and strict adherence to them. A conscientious person is always consistent and stable in his behavior, always correlates his actions and decisions with spiritual goals and values, deeply experiencing cases of deviation from them not only in his own behavior, but also in the actions of other people. Such a person is usually ashamed of other people if they behave dishonestly.

Slide 23

The human feeling about oneself is love. The last special human feeling that characterizes him as a person is love. F. Frankl spoke well about the meaning of this feeling in its highest, spiritual understanding. True love, in his opinion, is entering into a relationship with another person as a spiritual being. Love is entering into a direct relationship with the personality of the loved one, with his originality and uniqueness. A person who truly loves least of all thinks about any mental or physical characteristics of his loved one. He thinks mainly about what a given person is for him in his individual uniqueness. For the lover, this person cannot be replaced by anyone, no matter how perfect this “duplicate” may be in itself. True love is a spiritual connection between one person and another similar being. It is not limited to physical sexuality and psychological sensuality. For someone who truly loves, psychoorganic connections remain only a form of expression of the spiritual principle, a form of expression of love with the inherent human dignity.

Slide 24

The meaning of emotions in human mental activity. The importance of emotions in a person’s mental activity and the formation of his personality is enormous. They enrich the human psyche. The wealth of your own experiences helps you more deeply and subtly understand what is happening, be it works of art - poetry, music, theater, or the experiences of other people, or events happening in the world. So, various emotions color our behavior and our relationships, creating more or less lasting, sometimes lasting experiences. Emotion arises as a result of neurophysiological processes, which in turn can be caused by both internal and external factors. Emotions as a process are nothing more than the activity of evaluating information entering the brain about the external and internal world, which sensations and perceptions encode in the form of its subjective images. Emotional activity lies in the fact that the reality reflected by the brain is compared with the vital activity programs of the body and personality imprinted in it. The “intrinsic value” of emotions is determined by the fact that they are necessary not only for the body’s orientation in the external world, but also for a normal internal state.

Slide 25

American psychologist William James, the creator of one of the first theories in which subjective emotional experience is correlated with physiological functions, said: “Imagine, if possible, that you were suddenly deprived of all the emotions with which the world around you fills you and try to imagine a world like this, what he is in himself without your favorable or unfavorable assessment, without the hopes and fears he inspires. This kind of aloof and lifeless performance will be almost impossible for you. Everything valuable, interesting and important that each of us finds in our world is the pure product of the contemplating personality.”

Slide 26

The role of emotions in human relationships Many interesting observations, colorfully and vitally revealing the role of emotions in human personal relationships, were made by the famous philosopher B. Spinoza. One can argue with some of his generalizations, rejecting their universality, but there is no doubt that they well reflect the real intimate life of people. This is what Spinoza wrote at one time: “The nature of people for the most part is such that they feel compassion for those who are in bad times, and those who are good, they envy and... treat with the greater hatred, the more they love something, what they imagine to be in the possession of another...” [ 1 ]. “If someone imagines that an object he loves is with someone else in the same or even closer connection of friendship that he possessed alone, then he is overcome by hatred of the object he loves and envy of this other...” “This hatred of the beloved the object will be the greater, the greater the pleasure that the jealous person usually received from the mutual love of his beloved object, and also the stronger this effect that he had for what, in his imagination, comes into contact with the beloved object ... "

Slide 27

Conclusion. Knowledge of emotional processes will help to learn how to manage emotions, and psychologists will correctly make the psychological selection of individuals for activities in extreme conditions, and create a favorable psychological climate in the team, which is so necessary at the present time. Vygotsky Lev Semyonovich (1896-1934) - Soviet psychologist, creator of the cultural-historical theory of the development of higher mental functions.

Block 6. Emotions. Contempt.

Contempt is a negative emotional state characteristic of interpersonal relationships that occurs when there is a divergence in assessments, convictions and beliefs regarding an object or phenomenon.

Thus, an arrogant person treats with contempt people who do not correspond to his idea of ​​what one should be. The manifestation of timidity can cause contempt on the part of a subject who holds the view that timidity is the lot of the weak, and the weak are a lower “caste”.

A person identifies one or two key criteria that serve as a template for other people. This is a kind of “Procrustean bed” when everything unimportant is “cut off”. A person may not be able to defend his position, he may speak intelligently and softly, and be despised for this.

Block 7. Emotions. Fear.

Fear is a negative emotional state that occurs in response to real or imagined danger.

With fear, a person is afraid. Fear arises when the subject perceives an object as posing a threat to health, life, well-being of one’s own and “THIS.” Fear can be divided into three options:

– Horror is the highest degree of fear. It manifests itself in the fact that a person increasingly loses the ability to consciously control his own behavior. His entire mental space is filled with the cause of horror.

– Actually, fear is a reaction in which a person strives to quickly escape from a source that poses a threat.

– Anxiety/worry is an experience associated with a potential danger that is not clearly localized in space and time.

Bonus: robotics

By the way, the classification of emotions is widely used not only in the field of emotion recognition, but also for their synthesis. For example, in robotics. The emotional spectrum available to the robot can be integrated into a multidimensional space of emotions. Affect system is a system of emotional states that probably the cutest robot in the AI ​​industry, Kismet, developed by MIT, can switch between, and is based precisely on a multidimensional approach. Each dimension of emotional space (activation, valence and state, that is, readiness to communicate) is compared with a set of facial expressions. As soon as the required value is reached, the robot will switch to the next emotion.

Video: How the Kismet robot works
Links

• Barrett, L. F. & Wager, T. D. (2006). The structure of emotion evidence from neuroimaging studies. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(2), 79–83. doi: 10.1111/j.0963–7214.2006.00411.x
• Cambria, E., Livingstone, A., Hussain, A. (2012) The Hourglass of Emotions. Cognitive Behavioral Systems,144–157.
• Chew, A. (2009). Aristotle's Functional Theory of the Emotions. Organon F 16 (2009), no. 1, 5–37.
• Crivelli, C., & Fridlund, A. J. (2018). Facial Displays Are Tools for Social Influence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(5), 388–399. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.02.006
• Ekman, P. (1999). Basic Emotions. In T. Dalgleish and M. Power (Eds.). Handbook of Cognition and Emotion. Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
• Fu Ching-Sheue (2012). What are emotions in Chinese Confucianism? www.researchgate.net/publication/267228910_What_are_emotions_in_Chinese_Confucianism?
• Gendron, M., Crivelli, C., & Barrett, L. F. (in press). Universality reconsidered: Diversity in making meaning of facial expressions. Current Directions in Psychological Science.
• Harmon-Jones, E., Harmon-Jones, C., Summerell, E. (2017) On the Importance of Both Dimensional and Discrete Models of Emotion. Behav Sci (Basel). Sep 29;7(4)
• Murphy, F. C., Nimmo-Smith, I., & Lawrence, A. D. (2003). Functional neuroanatomy of emotion: A meta-analysis. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 3, 207–233.
• Phan, K. L., Wager, T. D., Taylor, S. F., & Liberzon, I. (2002). Functional neuroanatomy of emotion: A meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRI. Neuroimage, 16, 331–348.
• Plutchik, R. (2001) The Nature of Emotions. American Scientist 89(4):344
• Ringeval, F., Sonderegger, A., Sauer, J., & Lalanne, D. RECOLA & ANNEMO: diuf.unifr.ch/diva/recola/annemo.html
• Kipp, M. ANVIL: www.anvil-software.org
• Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics. ELAN: tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla-tools/elan
• Emotion, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: plato.stanford.edu/entries/emotion

Block 8. Emotions. Shame.

Shame is a negative emotional state characteristic of situations when a person realizes that his own thoughts and actions do not correspond to his ideas - beliefs - beliefs about normative behavior or the expectations of significant people.

There are different types of shame:

– Guilt is a person’s experience of his own behavior or the behavior of “THIS OWN” as not corresponding to established norms, rules, and assigned tasks.

– Conscience is a person’s complex experience of the relationship between personal thoughts, actions and cultural, religious, social norms, as they are presented in their own cognitive model of the world.

– Shame itself is an acute experience of one’s own negative assessment of one’s actions.

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