Reference and value data types in the CLR via C# (part 1)

We all live in society, or, in scientific terms, in society. Even before the creation of the science of sociology, it was possible to conditionally divide people into groups. Now there are a lot of them, and one person can relate to several at once. It all depends on what characteristic unites people. Let's consider the concept and typology of social groups, using examples.

Concept

A social group is a collection of individuals in a society united by some socially significant feature. Such a sign can be gender, age, nationality, profession, etc.

A social group is a kind of intermediary between an individual and the whole society. Being a member of such a group, an individual undergoes a certain socialization. In a social environment, with the help of internal interaction in a group, norms of collective behavior, as well as characteristic features, are formed.

Typologies of social groups

There are a huge number of communities in society. After all, there can be very, very many signs for dividing individuals. The following is the most common typology of social groups in sociology:

1. Classes and strata by social status (peasants, workers, entrepreneurs, government officials, intelligentsia, bourgeoisie).
2. Communities based on ethnicity (nations, nationalities, tribes, etc.).
3. Sociocultural communities (fans of various subcultures, fans of rock music, clubs created by fans, collectors).
4. Individuals united by territorial factor (residents of villages, cities, other various settlements, countries, continents, parts of the world).
5. Religious (Christians, Muslims, Buddhists and others, as well as various sects and groups of people who are united by certain rituals).
6. Based on profession (doctors, teachers, drivers, lawyers, programmers and other groups of professions and specialties).
7. Socio-demographic (youth, pensioners).
8. Political associations (members of parties or political movements, liberals, conservatives, and others).
9. Family and household groups (family, everyday life, their various types and forms).

This is the simplest classification, which is given as an example even in the school curriculum in the subject of social studies.

Characteristics and signs

If we describe social groups (concept and typology) briefly, then all of them should have the following characteristics:

1. A certain way of interaction between individuals. For example, students of a certain group at a university can discuss laboratory work, lectures, and be all involved during a seminar.
2. Each member of the group is aware of their belonging to it (the figure skating team of a country must have a sense of loyalty and duty to their state, defend the honor of the country at various competitions and championships).
3. An established awareness of unity (a troupe of theater actors is perceived as a single whole by themselves, the audience, critics, and workers of this theater).

Diversity of society

It would be inappropriate to describe in the article only one, the most common type of typology of social groups. After all, there are a lot of classifications.

For example, consider the distinction between social groups according to C. Cooley. According to his classification, they can be primary and secondary. What does it mean? Let's take a closer look:

1. Primary. In such groups, close, direct connections and cooperation are established between its members. We can say that the connection in this case is established at a certain psychological level; all individuals of this group can say “we” about it. These include the family, the neighborhood, children in kindergarten or the adult generation of a family.

2. Secondary. In secondary groups there is practically no emotional component of the connection between individuals. Each secondary is united by the desire for a specific goal. Therefore, the ability of each individual to perform specific functions, rather than personal qualities, comes to the fore.

Another typology of social groups and communities is formed based on the way of organizing and regulating interaction between individuals:

1. Formal are communities that have legal status. Interaction within such a group is regulated by a set of rules and laws. They have a goal, a hierarchical structure, and all actions are carried out according to the established administrative order (legal organizations, enterprises).
2. Informal. These groups have no legal status and lack official regulation. They arise spontaneously and exist on the basis of some common interests (informal youth groups, fans of rock music and others). Sometimes such communities have a leader.

If we briefly consider the typology of social groups from the perspective of an individual’s attitude towards it, then one can express one’s affiliation in different ways. Let's take a closer look:

1. Ingroup - a person is aware of his belonging, perceives the community as his own and calls it “mine” (my family, my team, etc.).
2. The outgroup is the opposite. The individual does not belong to this community and perceives it as “alien” (another family, another nation). Moreover, views on these other, not our own, communities can range from indifferent to hostile-aggressive.

Next, we will analyze the typology of social groups and communities according to the degree of objectivity of their existence:

1. Nominal - a set of people artificially identified according to some characteristic. There are no real relationships and interactions between these people; they usually unite to carry out some scientific, practical or socially significant tasks (for example, voters, people with higher education, buyers of a certain brand of soap, and others).
2. Real - a community of individuals between whom there are real connections and interactions, and the group itself can have relationships with others. All participants in such a set of people clearly identify themselves with it (family, class, etc.).

Finally, we come to the concept and typology of social groups, which are worth considering in more detail. So, large and small communities.

Types of speech: narration, description, reasoning

In the Russian language, based on the presence of content and compositional features of the text, the following types of speech are distinguished: narration, description, reasoning. We will indicate the distinctive features of each type of speech with examples of texts.

Types of speech in text

The text combines several sentences related by topic and main idea. The topic is what the text is about. This is the subject of speech. The text always contains the main idea expressed by the author, what he wanted to explain or what he sought to convince the reader of.

To understand the meaning of any text, it is important to find out the type of speech, which determines the ways of forming and developing the main idea.

Types of speech are functional varieties of texts: narration, description, reasoning.

To learn how to correctly identify types of speech, let’s find out how and for what purpose the subject is depicted, indicate the structure of the text, the main question contained in it. Let us consider the main types of speech, indicating the features of their linguistic design.

What is a description?

Using the description, the subject of speech (person, animal, object of reality) is examined in detail, both essential and non-essential features and qualities are indicated. The surrounding world in the description is often depicted statically, without dynamics in time.

The text containing the description provides an answer to the main question: what is the subject? what is a person like?

My friend looked fifty. He was a stocky man of average height, dressed in an embroidered shirt and untucked trousers. On his feet were soft felted shoes, edged with green velvet, and on his head was a deep cap, covering his eyes with a visor. Small eyes, almost without eyebrows, looked with a cunning look (N. Minkh).

The main purpose of the description is to characterize the subject. The narrator gives not only a detailed description of the object, but also its characteristics, assessment, and recreates a certain picture, which makes the speech figurative and vivid. The description reveals and lists the characteristic features of the subject of speech beyond time boundaries.

Description as a type of speech is a message about the simultaneous characteristics of an object.

Types of text with description:

• description of a person’s appearance (portrait);
• description of the human condition;
• description of a person's character;
• description of the environment (nature);
• description of the place (city, village, locality);
• description of the item, etc.

Description composition

The description has the following compositional structure:

1. general impression of the subject of speech;
2. signs of the subject of speech;
3. author's assessment of what is being described.

Features of the language design of the description

In the description, the author uses the following language means:

• nouns and adjectives predominate;
• verbs in the present tense imperfective form;
• compound nominal predicates;
• circumstances of the place.

What an amazing house! The rooms are large, the tables and chairs are also large, wooden and as if made of lace - patterns are carved into the wood. The lamps are strange, the stoves are like in the village, only they have elegant stripes of multi-colored tiles. Photographs and paintings hang on the walls. And a staircase leads to the second floor, but not a simple one, but twisted, like a curly strand (G. Vetrova).

What is storytelling?

The narrative tells about events that develop sequentially, from beginning to end, that is, over a certain period of time. The world around us is presented in dynamics, in development, in constant change.

Narration as a type of speech is a message about the actions of a subject in a certain sequence.

This type of speech, unlike description, is dynamic, its time plans are constantly changing.

The main question asked in the story is: what happened? what's happening?

For example, this is how a river flood is depicted in spring:

Spring this year was late, but friendly. At three days the snow, of which there was a lot of snow, turned into roaring torrents. Having descended through numerous ravines from the mountains, they rushed down, and the river, which had been silent for the entire winter, encased in a two-meter thick layer of seemingly indestructible ice, opened up in one night and awakened from hibernation.

Thunderous peals of bursting ice giants rolled over the river. Freed from her shackles, she moved towards the streams, united with them, flooding everything that was above her level: clearings, vegetable gardens and nearby huts.

The meadows turned into seas. Not only wild ducks swam there, but also migratory swans (M. Alekseev).

Narrative composition

In a narrative text there is always the beginning of an event, its development and completion. Let us indicate the compositional structure of the narrative:

1. beginning (beginning of action);
2. action development;
3. climax (the most poignant, interesting moment);
4. denouement (end of action)

Means of linguistic design of narration

Narration is created by the following linguistic means:

• verbs and verb forms predominate;
• verbs in the past perfect form;
• simple and compound verbal predicates;
• circumstances of the time.

Bim walked carefully and diligently through the meadow with a shuttle, looking for scattered cheese, and suddenly a stream of air burst into the smells of herbs, flowers, earth, and river, unusual and exciting: the smell of some kind of bird, not at all similar to those that Bim knew.

There was a smell of something unknown that stirred the blood. Bim stopped and looked back at Ivan Ivanovich. Then, quietly stepping on his paws, he began to approach the unknown, no longer looking at Ivan Ivanovich.

The steps became less and less frequent, as if he was choosing a point for each paw so as not to rustle.

Finally the smell turned out to be so strong that it was no longer possible to go further. And Bim froze in place, as if petrified. It was a statue of a dog, as if created by a skilled sculptor. Here it is, the first stand! The first awakening of hunting passion until complete oblivion of oneself (G. Troepolsky).

What is reasoning?

Reasoning is a type of speech in which objects or phenomena are examined and their internal characteristics are revealed. Reasoning can be a verbal presentation, explanation and confirmation of some thought.

When reasoning, the speaker explains something, proves or refutes with the help of arguments his point of view on an object or phenomenon of reality.

The argument asks the main question: why is the subject like this? Why do they do this and not otherwise? Why do we say this?

Reasoning as a type of speech is aimed at clarifying the causes and consequences of the phenomena, events, and actions of people under discussion. When reasoning, the speaker comes to a new judgment. Reasoning is an explanation of any facts or events indicating cause-and-effect relationships.

Examples

Without knowledge, without a broad outlook, you cannot take a step forward. A beautiful person in our understanding is a harmoniously developed person.

Thus, Leonardo da Vinci and Leo Tolstoy followed the path of establishing harmony. Their range of interests was immensely wide, their connection with life was deep, their desire to know the unknown was indomitable.

Leonardo da Vinci fought for freedom and was a pioneer in various fields of knowledge. The great artist, who created perfect works of art, penetrated into the secrets of astronomy and botany, and wrote fables.

Leo Tolstoy knew Church Slavonic, Latin, Ukrainian, English, French, German, Greek, and Italian well. And this same man masterfully laid the stove and mowed it no worse than a mower!

Our knowledge tends to accumulate gradually. Even the most superficial knowledge can be deepened - you just don’t have to be lazy. What is not sown will not ripen.

Expand your horizons, strive for depth of knowledge, cultivate higher humanity in yourself! Live so that every day seems new to you! Life is beautiful with its wings spread. (S. T. Konenkov)

Compositional structure of reasoning

Having observed how the argumentative text is constructed, let us indicate its compositional structure:

1. thesis (main idea);
2. arguments (evidence or refutation);
3. conclusion.

Large social groups

A large social group is an association of participants who do not have direct interaction with each other, but are connected by psychological mechanisms of group communication. Large social groups have certain characteristics:

1. Structural and functional organization.
2. The life activity of such communities is regulated by group consciousness, customs and traditions.
3. Established mental makeup and group psychology.
4. May influence the formation of personality type.
5. Within a group there is a set of social norms. They regulate interaction.

The typology of large social groups also has its place. There are several classifications.

By the nature of connections within and between large social groups:

1. Objective - individuals are united by connections that do not depend on their consciousness and will.
2. Subjective-psychological - people consciously unite into such macrogroups.

By duration of existence:

1. Long existing (nations).
2. Temporarily existing (people in the lecture hall).

By degree of organization:

1. Organized (political parties).
2. Unorganized (crowd of protesters).

By occurrence:

1. Arose spontaneously (crowd in the subway).
2. Organized according to plan, in a conscious manner (parties, associations).

According to the degree of contact between people within the community:

1. Conditional - groups united by a common characteristic (gender, profession, etc.). In such communities there are no internal contacts between individuals.
2. Real big ones - in such groups there are contacts between people, quite close ones. But often they are united by a specific goal (rallies, meetings).

Depending on the degree of difficulty of joining a particular community, the future participant’s decision to join and leave the community:

1. Open.
2. Closed.

Social psychology of groups, typology of groups, as it relates specifically to large populations, includes a set of certain elements depending on the spheres of the psyche: life values, goals and social. attitudes, social consciousness, mentality, public opinion, social customs, behavioral stereotypes, motives for activity, general needs and interests. And much more.

Integer types

In the Pascal language, there are 5 types of integer types. Each of them characterizes the range of accepted values ​​and the space they occupy in memory.

When using integer numbers, you should be guided by the nesting of types, i.e. types with a smaller range can be nested within types with a larger range. The Byte type can be nested within all types that occupy 2 and 4 bytes. At the same time, the Short Int type, which occupies 1 byte, cannot be nested in the Word type, since it does not have negative values.

Small social groups

A small social group is a closely interconnected association of people who are united by joint activities and have the same goals and interests. It is the presence of direct interaction with each other that is the group-forming factor for this type of community. Such groups are also called contact groups.

Small social groups have the following characteristic features:

1. The number of community members is small, usually no more than 15.
2. Close communication between individuals in a group.
3. Interests, goals, activities - all this is common and joint, what unites the participants of such a community.
4. They are clearly localized in a specific place in space and are stable over time.
5. A clear division of labor, functions and group roles between community members, coordination of their activities.
6. They are mentally united by norms of behavior, attitudes, values, life guidelines and principles.
7. A defined structure of organization and management.
8. From the point of view of individuals who are not included in a given small aggregate, there is a clear identification of the community.

The typology of small groups in social psychology is not very different from the typology of large groups. Here you need to understand what exactly is the defining feature. Briefly, the typology of social groups can be presented as follows.

Depending on the type of organization (defined above):

1. Formal.
2. Informal.

According to the nature of the predominant focus of group activity:

1. Internal - the activity of the community is directed inward, towards its participants (children's clubs, psychotherapeutic groups).
2. External - the nature of the community’s activity is directed outward (associations of volunteers, Masonic movements.

The same as large ones, in terms of lifetime:

1. Temporary - the association of participants is limited in time (conference participants).
2. Stable - the relative constancy of which is determined by their purpose and long-term goals of functioning (family, students of the same group).

Just like in big social networks. communities:

1. Open.
2. Closed.

We looked at the typology of groups in social work. For various sociological studies, these classifications and divisions within them are used. This applies to large and small groups. The following are the types of small social communities according to the level of general consciousness and their definitions.

Ordinal types

Ordinal types combine several simple types. These include:

• all integer types;
• character type;
• boolean type;
• type-range;
• enumerated type.

Common features for ordinal types are: each type has a finite number of possible values; the value of these types can be ordered in a certain way and a certain number, which is a serial number, can be associated with each number; adjacent values ​​of ordinal types differ by one.

For values ​​of an ordinal type, the function ODD(x) can be applied, which returns the ordinal number of the argument x.

Function PRED(x) – returns the previous value of an ordinal type. PRED(A) = 5.

SUCC(x) function – returns the next ordinal value. SUCC(A) = 5.

Types and definitions of small social groups

In this case they are as follows:

• The group is a conglomerate. Its members do not know each other, but they ended up in the same territory at the same time. We can say that they have not yet realized that the goal of their activity is common and united.
• Nominal group. This is a collection of people who came together and received a common name.
• Group is an association. These people are united only by a common goal and joint activities. There are no signs of a psychological connection.
• Group - cooperation. A community of people actively interacting with each other. They are connected by the goal of achieving a certain result in their activities. The distinctive features are group experience and preparedness.
• Group - autonomy. It is a holistic and distinct collection of people who work towards a common goal. For them, it is important not only to be satisfied with the result, but also to enjoy the activity within the community.
• The group is a corporation. The same as cooperation, but the difference lies in the presence of organizational and psychological unity. Such a group is characterized by hyperautonomy, isolation, closedness and isolation from other communities.
• Team. A group with a high level of social development and principles of high humanism. Team members achieve a joint common goal by harmonizing individual, group and social goals.
• Gomphoteric (“knocked down”) team. The same as a team, only psychophysiological compatibility is added to all other signs and qualities. An example would be the crew of a spaceship.

Declaring a variable in C#

In order to declare variables, you must indicate its type and name, and it is advisable to immediately initialize it with a value (but not necessary). Accordingly, the declaration of an integer variable will look like this:

int i = 42;

Where int is the type, i is the variable name, = is the value assignment symbol, 42 is the value, ; — symbol of the end of the command.

This form is the most correct, but in some cases it is possible to divide this operation into two commands

int i; i = 42;

Variables and other types are declared in a similar way.

Professional social group. Example

Let's consider lawyers as a socio-professional group and a typology of lawyers. What do we mean by this?

A lawyer is a person knowledgeable in the field of jurisprudence, who has professional knowledge and skills in the field of law and knows how to apply them in practice.

Signs of a social and professional group of lawyers:

1. A lawyer is a person who has a diploma in law (qualification - specialist), or who actually works in legal practice.
2. Lawyers are part of the intelligentsia. This is an activity where high qualification of a specialist is primary.
3. They have such features as coincidence of interests, goals and unity of action, which are shared by the entire socio-professional community of lawyers, as well as individual elements of the professional group.
4. They embody the connection between state and law.
5. Their work has a special content (they interpret legal actions, draw up legal documents).

There is an interesting typology of lawyers (the names are arbitrary):

1. Enthusiast - skillfully combines the spirit and letter of the law, strives for perfection.
2. The service worker is the same enthusiast, but without the desire to change the law and practice.
3. A pragmatist understands the law, but strives primarily to “get through” the matter.
4. Weather vane - may allow deviations from legal grounds under pressure from managers.
5. Pedant - strictly follows the letter of the law.
6. Antipedant - guided by the spirit of the law, but allows deviations from its letter.
7. A bureaucrat supposedly “does not notice” the letter of the law and does everything for his own convenience and peace of mind.
8. Careerist - may sacrifice the letter of the law for the sake of career advancement;
9. Cynic - shows a disdainful attitude towards the spirit and letter of the law, violates the norms of morality and professional ethics in a rude manner.
10. False lawyer - uses his official position, can use the law for personal purposes.

We analyzed the social group (concept, types, typology) of lawyers. You can also take completely different communities of people as an example.

Types of variables in C# language

Before we begin to get acquainted with the main data types in the C# language, we need to learn and study one more issue - the types of variables. In fact, there are only two of them:

Reference – stored on the heap (complex types and classes)

Significant – stored on the stack (basic primitive types)

We won't go into detail on this topic, but the general idea is as follows:

Conventionally, there are two types of memory in a computer for running an application:

Stack memory , but very limited in size

Heap ( Heap) is memory limited only by the size of RAM, but at the same time significantly slower than the stack.

Thus, it is easy to understand that the stack stores small data, which is accessed at the highest speed, and the heap stores complex entities containing a large amount of data.

Leadership in Social Groups

In any association (including social) there is always an explicit or implicit leader. The following describes the concept and typology of leadership in a social group.

Let's understand the term. A leader is a member of a community who emerges based on the interaction of individuals within the group. He has a higher level of involvement, participation, and decision-making within the framework of a certain task being achieved.

Let us briefly describe leadership typologies.

According to the content of leadership activities:

1. Business leadership (solves organizational problems, has business authority).
2. Emotional leadership (inspires trust, inspires confidence, creates an atmosphere of psychological comfort).
3. “Information” leadership (erudite, has an increased level of knowledge, can provide assistance in finding the necessary information).

By roles played:

1. Organizer (group integration).
2. Initiator (putting forward new ideas and solutions).
3. Generator of emotional mood (forms the mood of the group).
4. Standard (example, idol).
5. Master (specialist in a certain type of activity).
6. Erudite (possessor of extensive knowledge).

These are the main classifications. There are several more of them. The main thing is that a social group must go through the following stages of leader formation: 1) identification; 2) its development; 3) taking into account the interests of the group; 4) informal leadership; 5) eliminating the destructive leader.