Communication is still important today

Concept of communication

Communication is a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs for joint activities.

Throughout life, a person is involved in the process of communication. Depending on age, gender, occupation, goals, etc. one or another type of communication plays a leading role. Any communication with any person is subject to its own complex laws of an objective and subjective nature. Knowledge of these patterns is an indispensable condition for the effectiveness of both communication itself and any human activity. In addition, there are a number of professional activities in which the communication process plays a leading role.

The problem of communication, considered as one of the main psychological categories, is an ambiguously interpreted concept. There are many definitions of communication in the scientific literature, which is due to the complexity and versatility of this phenomenon. Psychologists and philosophers are interested in various aspects of its manifestation (information exchange, psychological interaction and mutual influence, mutual understanding and relationship). Much attention is paid to the consideration of communication as an information process - the reception and transmission of information. An important direction in the implementation of the information aspect of communication is the consideration of issues of people’s understanding of each other, the perception of man by man. There are different approaches to defining the concept of “communication” (Table 1).

Table 1

Explication of the concept of communication as interpreted by various authors

In the most general form, communication can be considered as a form of life activity. It acts as one of the most important conditions for identifying and revealing the best sides of a personality, the formation of its consciousness and self-awareness, and a stimulator of its development. Communicating with other people, analyzing the attitude of other people towards themselves, reflecting, a person discovers the need for self-improvement and realizes it in the process of self-education.

The communicative side of speech

Definition 1
Communication is a type of active interaction between objects of any nature, which involves information exchange.

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Communication between people is distinguished by the following specific features:

• Firstly, it undoubtedly must contain two individuals, each of whom is an active subject. At the same time, their mutual information implies the organization of joint activities.
• Secondly, it must contain the possibility of mutual influence of partners on each other through the concept of signs. In other words, the exchange of information in this case implies an influence on the behavior of the interlocutor and a change in the state of the participants in the communication process.
• Thirdly, influence in communication can only be exercised if there is a unified concept of decodification and codification between the communicator (the person who sends information) and the recipient (the person who receives it).
• Fourth, communication barriers are always likely to arise. In this case, the connection that exists between attitude and communication is clearly visible.

The model of the communication process, as a rule, contains five components: communicator - message (text) - channel - audience - feedback.

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Definition 2

The communication side is a way of psychologically influencing the interlocutor. During the period of information transfer, one person influences another. The better a subject’s communication skills are developed, the higher the degree of influence he has on his own interlocutors.

Information is provided on two levels:

1. Incentive. These are remarks of a pleading, commanding, recommendatory nature. They are expressed with the task of stimulating a person to perform some action.
2. Stater. Speech at this level is of a notification nature, which is aimed at providing any information. Ranges from indifferent presentation to active persuasion.

Communication structure

The study of communication shows the complexity, diversity, multi-level nature of the manifestations and functions of this phenomenon, which, in turn, requires the identification of its individual components and a description of the structure.

There are several approaches to structuring communication. Let us dwell on the two most frequently encountered in the scientific literature. The first illustrates the approach of G.M. Andreeva and identifies three interrelated aspects of communication: communicative, interactive and perceptual (Fig. 1).

Sides of communication

Communicative

Interactive

Perceptual

Identification of the specifics of the information process between people as active subjects (taking into account the relationships between partners, their attitudes and intentions)

Interaction of partners in organizing and carrying out joint activities

Forming an image of another person by correlating physical characteristics with psychological properties and behavioral characteristics

Rice. 1. Parties of communication according to G.M. Andreeva

The second is based on the concept of A.N. Leontyev. Communication is considered as a communicative activity (Fig. 2).

Structure of communicative activity

Subject of communication

Another person, communication partner

Need

in communication

A person’s desire to know and evaluate other people, and through them and with their help - to self-knowledge, to self-esteem

Communication motives

What communication is for

Units of communicative activity, a holistic act addressed to another person (two main categories of communication actions - proactive and reactive)

Communication actions

The goal to achieve which in a specific communicative situation various actions performed in the process of communication are aimed

Communication tasks

Communication means

Operations by which communication actions are carried out

Product of communication

Formations of a material and spiritual nature created as a result of communication

Rice. 2. Structure of communicative activity

according to A.N. Leontiev

Of course, in reality, all three sides of communication are interconnected, appear almost simultaneously in the process of communication and are isolated for the convenience of scientific, experimental research. But this convention does not mean that the identification of these three components of communication is just speculative constructions.

Perceptual side of communication

Definition 2

The perceptual side of communication is a form of dialogue that involves the formation of deep mutual understanding between the interlocutors.

In psychology, the concept of “perception” is used to reflect the function of the psyche, which is responsible for the perception of surrounding people and the creation of a holistic image of the opponent’s personality. According to scientists, the assessment of a stranger consists of half a wrong opinion and 50 percent a correct perception. This fact can be explained by the influence of three factors that influence the perceptual side of communication.

It should include:

• knowing your personality through building communication connections;
• understanding the opponent and knowing his personality;
• forecast of the behavioral model of a communication partner.

A significant mistake when assessing personality is the perception of a person’s external attractiveness. People who arouse interest with their appearance or other personal qualities are perceived as the most interesting interlocutors. In some cases, such people may be assigned qualities that may be completely uncharacteristic of their temperament.

Characteristics of perception mechanisms:

1. Identification is one of the tools for understanding the personality of an interlocutor, in which a conclusion about a person’s inner world is based on a specific attempt to imagine oneself in the place of the interlocutor.
2. Attraction is a mechanism of human cognition that implies attraction. A certain attitude towards an opponent is formed on the basis of stable positive feelings.
3. Empathy is a mechanism of sensual and emotional empathy with other people.

Understanding the feelings, desires and motives of the people around us is closely interconnected with the mechanisms listed above. It is also necessary to indicate that the perceptual side of communication is also associated with the mechanisms of casual reflection and attribution.

Definition 3

Casual attribution is a way of interpreting the actions and emotions of surrounding people, in the presence of a desire to establish the motives for their chosen behavior model.

Definition 4

Reflection belongs to the tools of self-knowledge of one’s personality through the formation of communicative connections.

The presented mechanism involves presenting one’s own personality as the partner perceives it.

Psychological characteristics of communication

The roles and tasks that communication performs in the process of human social existence are the functions of communication. Let us present one of the most complete classifications of communication functions, distinguished by goal criterion (Fig. 3).

Communication functions

Emotive

Information

Contact

Coordination

Incentive

Arousing the necessary emotional experiences in a partner, as well as changing one’s experiences and states with his help

Exchange of messages, opinions, plans, decisions, etc.

Establishing contact as a state of mutual readiness to receive and transmit messages and maintain relationships in the form of constant mutual orientation

Mutual orientation and coordination of actions when organizing joint activities

Stimulating the partner’s activity to direct him to perform certain actions

Understanding

Adequate perception and understanding of the meaning of the message and mutual understanding of intentions, attitudes, experiences, states

Establishing relationships

Renderings

influence

Awareness and fixation of one’s place in the system of role, status, business, interpersonal and other connections of the community in which the individual operates

Changes in the state, behavior, personal and semantic formations of the partner, including his intentions, attitudes, opinions, decisions, needs, actions, activities, etc.

Rice. 3. Communication functions

The functions of communication, as well as motives and needs, are realized in types of communication.

Concept of speech

Speech is the process of communication between people using language. In order to be able to speak and understand someone else’s speech, you need to know the language and be able to use it.

In psychology, it is customary to separate the concepts of “language” and “speech” (Table 2).

Language is a system of signs and symbols with the help of which combinations of sounds that have a certain meaning and meaning for people are transmitted. Language is developed by society and is a form of reflection of their social existence in the public consciousness of people. Language, being formed in the process of communication between people, is at the same time a product of socio-historical development.

table 2

The meaning of speech and language (psychological aspect)

Speech is a form of communication that has developed historically in the course of the material transformative activities of people, mediated by language. Thus, speech is the realization of language, which reveals itself only through speech. Human speech arises in response to the need to communicate with someone or communicate something.

Speech is closely connected with all aspects of human consciousness. Speech is a factor in a person’s mental development, his formation as a personality. All mental processes with the help of speech become voluntary and controllable. Speech is a mental phenomenon, it is individual and bears the imprint of a given individual’s subjective reflection and expression of objective reality and attitude towards it.

LECTURE 6. Basic elements of communication. Psychology of communication

Discipline "Psychology of Communication"

Specialty 08.02.01 “Construction and operation of buildings and structures”

Group II course: 1c2, 2c2, 3c2, 4c2, 5c2

Teacher Zhdanova Natalia Vladimirovna

LECTURE 6.
Basic elements of communication.
(2 hours). Lecture outline:

1. Communication as communication.
2. Barriers of misunderstanding.
3. Types of nonverbal means of communication.
4. Rules of conduct for a modern person in crowded conditions.

Communication as communication.

The communicative side of communication is manifested in the mutual exchange of information between interlocutors, the transfer and reception of knowledge, opinions and feelings. Please note that information in communication is not simply transferred from one partner to another (the person transmitting information is called a communicator, and the person receiving this information is called a recipient), but is exchanged. The exchange of information between participants in communication is carried out both at the verbal (speech) and non-verbal (non-speech) level.

At the verbal level, human speech is used as a means of transmitting information. You can often hear the opinion that speech hides a person’s true face, but at the same time, speech can demonstrate it, contrary to the will of the speaker.

The effectiveness of communication is most often associated with the communicative side. The main purpose of exchanging information is to develop a common point of view between those communicating, to establish agreement on situations and problems, and it is important that the information transmitted is correctly understood. The ability to accurately express one’s thoughts and the ability to listen are components of the communicative side of communication.

The understanding of the message that comes from the communicator to the recipient is influenced by the form and content of the message, depending on the personal characteristics of the speaker and his relationship to the listener, as well as on the situation in which the communication takes place. For example, a conversation with a friend will be different from the conversation you have with a teacher or, in the future, with clients. In addition, when communicating, the set of values ​​of your interlocutor must be taken into account, since, viewing the world through his “vision”, the communication partner hears, sees and thinks differently than you. Hence the misunderstanding between children and adults, since they attach different meanings to surrounding objects and circumstances. In addition, the message sent undergoes changes under the influence of the personality traits of the listener, as well as his attitude towards the speaker, the content and situation of communication.

Information passes the “trust-distrust” filter, which is why true information can often turn out to be unpleasant, and a lie can be pleasant. We trust information received from close people to a greater extent and less from strangers. In many communication situations, a person is faced with the fact that his words and motives are incorrectly perceived by the interlocutor, “do not reach” him, i.e. Some difficulties and obstacles arise in the way of information transfer. In this case, we talk about communication barriers, which are divided into barriers of misunderstanding, barriers of socio-cultural differences and barriers of attitude.

Barriers of misunderstanding.

In psychology, there are four levels of misunderstanding.

Phonetic

misunderstanding occurs as a result of the use of incomprehensible language, inexpressive speech, tongue-twister speech, or speech with a large number of parasitic sounds (um, uh...). Incomplete understanding occurs due to slurred speech, poor diction, and speech impediments. Therefore, in order to be correctly understood, you must learn to speak clearly, legibly, loudly enough and avoid tongue twisters. For example, people perceive fast or slow speech differently: it depends on age, education, and individual characteristics. Thus, older people will understand fast speech worse, and young people will understand slow speech.

Semantic

barriers of misunderstanding are associated with the polysemy of words in any language, when participants in communication use different meanings of words that have a different meaning.

The use of jargon, a “secret language,” also creates a semantic barrier. In addition, there are many special professional terms that a non-professional will not understand.

Stylistic

a barrier of misunderstanding arises when there is a discrepancy between the speaker’s speech style and the communication situation, or the speech style and the state of the person who is currently listening. In this regard, the story of a foreigner who learned several phrases and applied them, but was beaten and expelled, is instructive. This happened because he confused the words that express condolences with the words that wish happiness at the wedding.

Logical

a barrier of misunderstanding arises in cases where the logic of the speaker’s reasoning is either too complex for the listener to understand, or seems incorrect to him, or contradicts his inherent manner of evidence. Each person lives and acts according to his own logic, therefore, in the absence of an idea of ​​​​the logic of the communication partner, a barrier of misunderstanding is “triggered.” It’s no secret that there is a “childish”, “female”, “male” logic that influences the communication process. You can overcome logical barriers of misunderstanding with the help of the right arguments.

Barriers of socio-cultural differences are based on social, political, religious and professional differences, which lead to differences in the interpretation of certain concepts used in the process of communication. So, for example, the well-known saying “the well-fed does not understand the hungry” characterizes social difference. Sometimes an obstacle to communication can be the profession, gender and age of the partner. Psychologists have proven that the higher the speaker’s authority in the eyes of the listener, the lower the communication barrier. In other words, the higher the authority, the easier it is to assimilate the proposed message. The proverb “eggs don’t teach a hen” shows the attitude towards a partner who does not have the authority of the interlocutor, i.e. he is not an authority, you don’t have to listen to him.

The attitude barrier is associated with a hostile attitude towards the partner, with distrust of the speaker, which is “transferred” to the information received.

Nonverbal communication complements verbal communication. Psychologists have found that from 60 to 80% of information a person receives through non-verbal (non-speech) means of communication. The following types of non-verbal means of communication are distinguished:

1. Kinesics

studies the external manifestations of a person, including: facial expressions (movement of facial muscles), pantomime (body movement - posture, gait, poses), gestures and gaze.

2. Extralinguistics

examines speech pauses, coughing, crying, laughter, and
paralinguistics
- volume, timbre, rhythm, pitch.

3. Takeshika

studies touch in the process of communication (handshake, kiss, touching, etc.).

4. Proxemics

explores the location of people in space when communicating (distance to the interlocutor, personal space, etc.).

The quantity and quality of nonverbal signals depends on the age of the person; for example, nonverbal signals are easier to read in children than in adults. In addition, they are influenced by gender, temperament type, social status, and nationality. Thus, according to an English psychologist, during an hour-long conversation, a Finn resorts to gestures once, an Italian - 80 times, a Frenchman - 120 times, a Mexican - 180 times.

The meaning of the same gesture depends on a person’s belonging to a particular culture. For example, “the right thumb down” means disapproval among the British, punishment among the Romans, but such a gesture is absent among the Russians. Shaking your head from side to side means “no” among Russians, and “yes” among Bulgarians. To correctly interpret nonverbal communication, experts recommend following the following rules:

• one should “read” not individual gestures (they, like some words, can have several meanings), but their totality;

• gestures should be interpreted in the context of their manifestations (“arms crossed on the chest” - when communicating, this gesture expresses distrust, closedness; in cold frosty weather, a person with crossed arms is simply frozen);

• it is necessary to take into account national characteristics;

• when “reading” gestures, you should not attribute your experience and your condition to another person;

• it is necessary to remember about formal-role communication (see section 2.2), i.e. if a person plays the role of an arrogant person, then he will use appropriate gestures;

• health factors must be taken into account: for example, nearsighted people have dilated pupils, while farsighted people have narrowed pupils.

Facial expressions

is closely related to emotions and allows a person to guess about the feelings of joy, sadness, tension or peace experienced by the interlocutor. Facial expressions help a person convey his mood, attitude towards what he is talking about; joy, anger, sadness are the most common emotional states of the face. When expressing joy, the facial muscles begin to move, and all facial features seem to be raised upward. The nasolabial folds sharply change shape, diverging in an arched manner from the wings of the nose, first upward and then downward. The corners of the lips are pulled back and upward, the cheeks also rise upward, forming small wrinkles under the eyes, at the outer corners. The eyebrows take on a curved appearance. The feeling of anger is expressed in facial expressions by a frowning forehead, eyebrows moving. Vertical folds appear in the space between the eyebrows, while the lips are tightly compressed.

Facial expression plays an important role in communication, providing emotional contact between interlocutors. The German writer, literary and theater critic Georg Christoph Lichtenberg (1742-1799) noted that the most remarkable surface on earth for us is the human face. Facial expression is very dependent on the movement of the lips. Tightly compressed lips reveal internal tension, while relaxed lips indicate softness and openness.

Smile

is a universal means of non-verbal communication. Initially, a smile was a symbol of threat, but in our time it means the need for approval and goodwill. Some psychologists are of the opinion that a person smiles not only because he is happy about something, but also because smiling helps to feel confident and be happier. Perhaps this point of view is controversial, but still, when meeting, a smile relieves the wariness of the first minutes, promotes calm, confident communication and creates a positive attitude. A smile decorates a person, expresses the joy of meeting, speaks of the disposition and friendliness of a communication partner. Psychologists recommend that words of greeting and gratitude be accompanied by a smile.

People smile in different ways; There are friendly, ironic, ingratiating, contemptuous, mocking and other types of smiles. When communicating with your interlocutor, you should always remember that a smile should express a friendly disposition. A smile that shows a little of the upper row of teeth expresses a more friendly disposition than a regular smile. However, experts do not recommend using such an open smile at the first meeting, as it can create mistrust. A wide smile, when the mouth is slightly open and both rows of teeth are exposed, is not used when making acquaintances; it is typical for jokes between friends.

Americans like to repeat: “smile.” However, following this principle, remember that the smile should be appropriate to the situation and should not irritate the interlocutor.

Sight

- this is the first step on the way to your interlocutor. The look is very eloquent and expresses a wide variety of feelings and states. He can be tough, prickly, kind, joyful, open, hostile, affectionate, questioning, wandering, frozen, etc.

The gaze expresses the attitude towards the interlocutor; people look at each other from 30 to 60% of the conversation. Making eye contact helps regulate conversation. When a person speaks, he usually looks at the interlocutor less often than when he listens to him. If the speaker looks from his partner to something else and back, this means that he has not finished speaking yet. If the speaker’s thought is complete, then he, as a rule, looks into the interlocutor’s eyes, as if saying: “I’ve said everything, the floor is yours.” Looking to the side or sideways is perceived as an expression of suspicion and doubt.

What irritates us most is people who lower their eyelids while talking. In this way, a person is trying to remove you from his field of vision because he is tired of you, has become uninteresting, or he expresses a feeling of superiority over you (in combination with his head thrown back).

Eye contact depends on the distance between the interlocutors. We look more at the speaker when he is at some distance, and avoid eye contact when he is close. The closer the interlocutor is, the less you need to look him straight in the eyes so as not to give him an unpleasant feeling.

Statisticians have calculated that in the works of L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910) described eighty-five shades of eye expression and ninety-seven shades of a smile.

Facial expressions can be consciously controlled in order to “hide” information about the psychological state. Therefore, in communication, it is important to know what information can be obtained by observing a person’s body and his movements.

Gestures.

In a conversation, we often accompany words with actions in which the hands play the main role, and even a simple handshake carries information about the interlocutor. For example, a handshake with the palm down typically signifies superiority; a hand with the palm up signifies submission; and a hand held vertical is a partner's handshake. Every human gesture is like a word in a language; it is inextricably linked with the train of thought and with the movement of a person’s feelings.

To determine the understanding of information in psychology, a feedback mechanism is used,

which manifests itself in the fact that in the process of exchanging information, in addition to its original content, it carries information about how the interlocutors perceive and evaluate each other’s behavior. Feedback involves observing a communication partner and assessing his reactions, as well as subsequently changing one’s own behavior in accordance with this.

When a specialist of any profile communicates with a client or colleague, feedback is an important and necessary condition for establishing a trusting relationship. Thanks to feedback, we can understand how what we are talking about was received - with approval or hostility, whether the interlocutor is open or closed. “Wordless” feedback helps us achieve the results we need.

The most common types of gestures in communication are:

• gestures of appreciation,

in which a person evaluates information: scratching the chin, extending the index finger along the cheek, standing up and walking around;

• self-control gestures:

hands are brought together behind the back, while one squeezes the other or, when a person sitting on a chair, grabs the armrests with his hands;

• dominance gestures:

gestures associated with showing thumbs, as well as sharp movements from top to bottom;

• location gestures:

placing a hand on the chest, signifying honesty, and intermittently touching the interlocutor.

Pose

- this is the position of the human body; Your appearance largely depends on the ability to hold and move correctly. Our manner of standing, walking and sitting is an additional source of information. The shoulder girdle and upper body of a person are very informative. For example, high shoulders with a slightly hunched back and retracted chin indicate helplessness, fearfulness and uncertainty, while shoulders falling forward indicate a feeling of depression. Freely dropped shoulders “speak” of inner freedom and confidence, and pushing the shoulders back indicates activity, determination (but often an overestimation of one’s own capabilities).

The human body is capable of taking about a thousand different positions, of which, due to the cultural tradition of each nation, some positions are forbidden, while others are normative. Poses indicate the level of culture of society. Thus, sitting lounging on a chair or with your feet on a table in the presence of a partner is not accepted in our society. You need to learn to sit beautifully, comfortably and naturally, and you should not “plop down” on a chair - you need to sit calmly and beautifully. You should also not smooth out your skirt after you sit down. When the interlocutor sits slightly leaning forward, he expresses attention and concentration; if he leaned back and crossed his legs, then his appearance “speaks” of disinterest, “switching off” from the conversation.

During communication, you can observe the most “readable” postures:

• open,

characterizing sincerity and truthfulness: open palms of hands turned towards the interlocutor; arms and legs are not crossed; unbuttoned jacket;

• closed,

or
defensive,
meaning a reaction to possible threats or conflict situations: crossed arms; sitting astride a chair, with the back of the chair acting as a shield or protection; and also when a person sits on a chair with his legs crossed or crossed;

• readiness pose,

characterizing the desire for active action, enthusiasm in achieving the goal: hands lie on the hips; the torso is tilted forward, the hands rest on the knees, and the legs rest on the floor so that one leg protrudes slightly forward, leaving the other behind.

Voice is important for communication

which is the expression of our feelings. People who are timid and unsure of themselves speak in a quiet voice; very loud, “excited” speech can be perceived as harshness and aggression. In normal situations, you need to speak at a normal volume so that everyone can hear you clearly. Every person needs to work on developing their voice, this especially applies to those who constantly engage in communication, whose profession is related to the spoken word.

Flexibility, plasticity of the voice, and the ability to easily change it depending on the content of the speech are essential. In addition, the tone of speech is very important, i.e. the coloring of a person’s voice, with the help of which he conveys his feelings and thoughts. After all, tone can change the content of speech and give it the opposite meaning. A well-produced voice is characterized by rich timbre coloring. Timbre is the color of sound, brightness, warmth, softness and individuality. It is no coincidence that there are voices that attract us and are remembered for a long time.

One of the most important means can be the skillful use of pauses, which help to convey and perceive the meaning of the statement. The duration of pauses varies and depends on the reason for which it was caused. Voice and gesture, combined with facial expressions, help a person create his own image.

Proxemics

deals with the norms of spatial and temporal organization of communication. There are four spatial zones, or distances in communication:

1) intimate (from 0 to 45 cm). Of all the distances in communication, it is the most important and protected by man; the closest people are allowed to enter this zone;

2) personal (from 45 cm to 120 cm). This distance is used in everyday communication among familiar people;

3) social (from 120 cm to 400 cm). This is the distance of official meetings with strangers, people whom we do not know very well (a newbie in a group, a new employee in a team);

4) public, or public (from 400 cm to 750 cm). When communicating with a large number of people, for example, it is more convenient for a lecturer to convey information and for listeners to perceive it.

It is interesting that the determining factor in the distance between communicaters is socio-age differences. Researchers note that the greater the age difference between communicating people, the greater the distance between them. The same thing happens when people with different social status communicate.

Research has also shown that there is a connection between the height of the interlocutor and the communication distance: the taller the man, the more he tries to get closer to the interlocutor, and vice versa. In women, the opposite dependence is observed, so experts recommend taking this pattern into account in communication.

Have you ever wondered: why do conflict situations most often arise in public places (cinema halls, transport, escalators, etc.)? This can be explained by people invading each other's intimate areas. In the book “Psychology of Communication” E.I. Rogov* (* Rogov E.I. Psychology of Communication. - M., 2001. - P. 111.) gives the rules that A.B. Dobrovich formulated as unwritten rules of behavior for a modern person in crowded conditions, such as on a bus or elevator.

1. You are not allowed to talk to anyone, even friends.

2. It is not recommended to look directly at others.

3. The face must be completely impassive - no display of emotions is allowed.

4. If you have a book or newspaper in your hands, you should be completely immersed in reading.

5. The more crowded the transport, the more restrained your movements should be.

6. When in an elevator, look only at the floor indicator above your head.

Jean de La Bruyère (1645-1696), a French writer, a master of aphorisms, said that in every smallest, most insignificant, most inconspicuous act of ours, our entire character is already reflected: a fool enters, and leaves, and sits down, and gets up. , and is silent, and moves differently than an intelligent person.

Review questions:

1. Why is the effectiveness of communication associated with the communicative side?

2. What communication barriers do you know? Explain the essence of each barrier and give examples from everyday life.

3. What does the expression “read a person” mean?

4. What is the role of nonverbal communication in interpersonal interaction?

5. Name the types of non-verbal means of communication.

Bibliography:

1. Stolyarenko L.D. Psychology of business communication and management (textbook for colleges) - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix Publishing House, 2009.

2. Volkova A.I. Psychology of communication (textbook for colleges) - Rostov-on-Don.: Phoenix Publishing House, 2006.

3. Shelamova G.M. Business culture and psychology of communication (textbook for secondary vocational education) - M.: Izdatelsky, 2008.

4. Sukhov A.N. Social psychology (textbook for colleges) - M.: Izdatelsky, 2006.

Physiological basis of speech

The physiological basis of speech is illustrated in Fig. 5.

Peripheral speech support systems include:

1. the energetic system of the respiratory organs necessary for the production of sound - the lungs and the main respiratory muscle - the diaphragm;

1. generator system - sound vibrators (vocal cords of the larynx), the vibration of which produces sound waves;
2. resonator system - nasopharynx, skull, larynx and chest.

Syntagmatic and paradigmatic mechanisms of speech

Mechanisms

speech perception

Mechanisms for organizing speech response

Peripheral speech support systems: energy, generator, resonator

Second signaling system

Brain speech centers

Speech

Speech functions of the left hemisphere of the brain

Rice. 5. Physiological foundations of speech

According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, in humans there are two signaling systems of stimuli: the first signaling system is the direct impact of the internal and external environment on various receptors (this is also present in animals) and the second signaling system (speech). Moreover, only a small part of these words denotes sensory effects on humans. The work of the second signaling system consists primarily in the analysis and synthesis of generalized speech signals.

Special studies have established that a person’s ability to analyze and synthesize speech is associated with the left hemisphere of the brain. There are four brain speech centers: Brocca's center (located in the superior frontal gyrus), responsible for the volume of speech pronunciation; Wernicke's center (located in the temporal gyrus) - associated with understanding the meaning; visual center (located in the occipital lobe) – associated with the reading process; writing center (located in the middle frontal gyrus) – associated with written speech.

In addition, speech is ensured by the functioning of certain physiological mechanisms.

Syntagmatic and paradigmatic mechanisms of speech. Syntagmatic mechanisms reflect the dynamic organization of a speech utterance and its physiological characteristics during the functioning of the cerebral cortex. Paradigmatic are responsible for connecting the posterior parts of the left hemisphere with speech codes (phonemic, articulatory, semantic, etc.).

Mechanisms of speech perception. The transition to understanding the speech message is possible only after the speech signal has been converted. It is analyzed on the basis of detector coding, the phonemic interpretation of the information received by the brain. This means that neurons are sensitive to different sound signals and act on the basis of building a certain model of word recognition.

Mechanisms for organizing speech response. In an adult who speaks language, perception and pronunciation are mediated by internal physiological codes that provide phonological articulatory, visual and semantic analysis of words. Moreover, all of the above codes and the operations carried out on their basis have their own cerebral localization.

The complex process of verbal communication is based on the sequential activation of the mechanisms that provide it.

The first stage in the formation of speech structures is speech programming - building the backbone of a speech utterance. For this purpose, important information is selected and unnecessary information is eliminated.

The second stage is the construction of the syntactic structure of the sentence. The general structure of the phrase and its grammatical form are predicted, mechanisms are activated to ensure the search for the desired word, and the selection of sounds that most accurately reproduce it. Finally, pronunciation, the actual sound of speech, takes place. Thus, the process of “speaking” unfolds, during which the communicator encodes the information to be transmitted.

During the listening process, the interlocutor decodes the information received, which in turn is a step-by-step translation of the sounds of audible speech into the meaning of words, and this ensures an understanding of what the communicator wanted to say.

Psychological characteristics of speech

One of the features of speech is its versatility (Fig. 6).

Functions of speech

Impacts

Messages

Expressions

Consists of a person’s ability through speech to encourage people to take certain actions or refuse them

Consists of the exchange of information (thoughts) between people through words, phrases

The point is that, on the one hand, thanks to speech a person can more fully convey his feelings, experiences, relationships and, on the other hand, the expressiveness of speech and its emotionality significantly expand the possibilities of communication

Designations

Consists in a person’s ability, through words, to give objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality names that are unique to them.

Rice. 6. Functions of speech

According to its many functions, speech is a polymorphic activity, i.e. for its various functional purposes is presented in different forms and types (Fig. 7, 8).35

Internal

External

Forms of speech

Rice. 7. Forms of speech

External speech is a system of sound signals, written signs and symbols used by a person to transmit information, the process of materialization of thought. It can be oral and written.

Types of speech

Oral

Written

Dialogical

Monologue

Rice. 8. Types of speech

Oral speech is verbal (verbal) communication through linguistic means perceived by ear. She has two subspecies:

1. monologue speech is the speech of one person expressing his thoughts over a relatively long time, or a consistent coherent presentation by one person of a system of knowledge. Monologue speech is characterized by consistency and evidence, which are ensured by coherence of thought, grammatically correct design and expressiveness of vocal means. During preparation, such a speech is spoken out repeatedly, the necessary words and sentences are selected, and the plan for the speech is often recorded in writing. Monologue speech has greater compositional complexity, requires completeness of thought, stricter adherence to grammatical rules, strict logic and consistency in the presentation of what the speaker of the monologue wants to say. For example, the speech of a prosecutor, a lawyer in court;
2. Dialogical speech is speech in which all its participants are equally active. This is psychologically the simplest and most natural form of speech. It occurs during direct communication between two or more interlocutors. It is characterized by remarks exchanged between speakers, repetitions of phrases and individual words after the interlocutor, questions, additions, and explanations. Both dialogic and monologue speech can be active and passive. Both of these terms are, of course, conditional and characterize the activity of the speaker or listener. The active form of speech is the speech of a speaking person, while the speech of a listening person appears in a passive form. The fact is that when a person listens, he repeats to himself the words of the speaker. Outwardly this does not manifest itself in any way, although speech activity is present.

People differ in the degree of development of active and passive speech. One person understands another person’s speech well, but does not convey his own thoughts well, another speaks well, but does not know how to listen at all.

In legal practice, this is the main type of speech used in the process of communication of an investigator, prosecutor, lawyer, judge with participants in criminal and civil proceedings, with various officials and other persons. Dialogical interaction is aimed primarily at mutual familiarization of the parties with the position taken, at clarifying attitudes towards various events, people, etc.

Written speech is speech through written signs (letter, notes, scientific treatise).

It is addressed to a wide range of readers, is not situational and requires in-depth skills of sound-letter analysis, the ability to logically and grammatically correctly convey one’s thoughts, analyze what is written and improve the form of expression. The use of written language creates the need to achieve the most correct formulations, strictly adhere to the rules of logic and grammar, and think more deeply about the content and method of expressing thoughts.

In connection with the existing clear regulation of the preparation of procedural documents in the legal literature one can find the term “protocol language”. This term means: a set of special legal terms and concepts, certain speech patterns, stylistic rules for drawing up procedural documents.

There are certain requirements for the protocol style of presentation: the use of unambiguous terms that exclude their arbitrary interpretation; the use of precise and concise formulations, certain phraseological units, definitions; a brief, understandable summary of the material.

Inner speech is speech that does not perform the function of communication, but only serves the thinking process of a particular person.

With the help of internal speech, the process of transforming thoughts into speech and preparing a speech utterance is carried out. Inner speech is a person’s conversation with himself, which expresses thinking, motives of behavior, planning and managing activities.

In speech, the following properties can be distinguished: content, understandability, expressiveness and effectiveness (Fig. 9).

Properties of speech

Expressiveness

The number of thoughts, feelings and aspirations expressed in speech, their significance and correspondence to reality

Syntactically correct construction of sentences, as well as the use of pauses in appropriate places and highlighting words using logical stress

Emotional richness, richness of linguistic means, their diversity. In its expressiveness, speech can be bright, energetic and, conversely, sluggish, poor

The property of speech, which consists in its influence on the thoughts, feelings and will of other people, on their beliefs and behavior

Content

Understandability

Effectiveness

Rice. 9. Properties of speech

A lawyer’s speech, as a rule, should convey knowledge and facilitate its transformation into beliefs. It must teach, educate, and have the goal of influencing the individual and the team, their mood, opinion, interests, behavior, feelings. To achieve an oral presentation, a legal worker needs high speech and mental culture. His speech should be scientific in content, comply with legal norms, and in form - logical, bright, figurative. A lawyer must be able to connect the content of his speech with life, take into account the states and needs of the people listening to him, and use various linguistic means of expression (grooves, intonation, stress, etc.). The success of such a performance also depends on his knowledge, professional experience, sincerity, fluency in the material, self-control, endurance, and correct external expression of his feelings.

There are certain requirements for a lawyer’s speech, ignoring which negatively affects his professional authority. Therefore, a lawyer’s speech should be distinguished:

1. literacy, understandability, accessibility of the meaning of statements for any category of citizens;
2. consistency, logical order of presentation, persuasiveness, legal argumentation with references to various facts, evidence, legal norms;
3. purity of speech - the absence of non-literary, slang, and vulgar words in speech;
4. compliance with moral and ethical rules and standards of behavior;
5. expressiveness, a wide range of emotional means of influence: from emphatically neutral speech forms to emotionally expressive statements, accompanied by verbal means of influence;
6. variability of statements: from an invitation to participate in communication to the use of phrases filled with categorical requirements depending on various communicative situations[6].

A lawyer, in the course of his professional activity, needs to constantly improve his speech skills and improve the culture of communication.

The appropriateness of statements, taking into account the context and subtext of the statement, the absence of difficulties in written speech, variability in the interpretation of information, good orientation in the field of evaluative stereotypes and templates, the plurality of meanings of the concepts used, the metaphorical nature of speech indicate a person’s verbal competence.

Knowledge, abilities and skills related to speech activity are important components of communicative competence and communicative culture, which is often called speech culture.

Structure and functions of the communication process

Communication is the interaction of two or more people, consisting in the exchange of information between them of a cognitive or affective-evaluative nature. Communication is characterized by: content, functions and means.

The specifics of interpersonal communication are revealed in a number of processes and phenomena: psychological feedback, the presence of communication barriers, communicative influence and the existence of various levels of information transfer.[6]

The purpose of information exchange in communication is to develop common meaning and come to agreement. There are two types of communicative influence: authoritarian and dialogic communication. In the case of authoritarian influence, a “top-down” attitude is implemented; in the case of dialogic influence, an attitude toward equality is implemented.

The dissemination of information passes through a kind of trust-distrust filter. Such a filter acts in such a way that true information may be rejected, and false information may be accepted. In addition, there are tools that promote the acceptance of information and weaken the effect of filters. The combination of these means is called fascination. An example of fascination can be the musical, spatial or color accompaniment of speech.

The phenomenon of communication is monolithic and everything that defines it exists in an indissoluble unity, but researchers are still trying to isolate its individual elements. The study of the communication process has shown how complex and diverse this phenomenon is. For example, psychologists distinguish cognitive, emotional and behavioral components in the structure of communication.

B.D. Parygin identifies 3 parameters of communication:

1) content and focus: communication can be identifying and isolating, promoting and opposing;

2) form: verbal and non-verbal communication, direct, interpersonal and indirect;

3) ways of connecting content and form in the process of communication: imitation, infection, persuasion.

B.F. Lomov defines the structure of communication through functions:

1. Information and communication;

2.Regulatory-communicative;

3. Affective-communicative.

G.M. Andreeva identifies three interconnected aspects of communication:

- the communicative side of communication - consists of the exchange of information between people, the transfer and reception of knowledge, opinions, feelings;

- the interactive side of communication - consists of organizing interaction between people, i.e. when participants in communication exchange not only knowledge, ideas, but also actions. For example, you need to coordinate actions, distribute functions or influence the mood, behavior, beliefs of your interlocutor;

- the perceptual side of communication - which manifests itself through people’s perception, understanding and assessment of each other.

According to its purpose, communication is multifunctional. There are six functions of communication:

1) the pragmatic function of communication reflects its need-motivational reasons and is realized through the interaction of people in the process of joint activity. At the same time, communication itself is very often the most important need;

2) the function of formation and development reflects the ability of communication to influence partners, developing and improving them in all respects. By communicating with other people, a person learns universal human experience, historically established social norms, values, knowledge and methods of activity, and is also formed as a person. In general terms, communication can be defined as a universal reality in which mental processes, state and behavior of a person arise, exist and manifest themselves throughout life;

3) the confirmation function gives people the opportunity to know, approve and confirm themselves;

4) the function of uniting and separating people, on the one hand, by establishing contacts between them, facilitates the transfer of necessary information to each other and sets them up for the implementation of common goals, intentions, tasks, thereby connecting them into a single whole, and on the other hand, it can promote differentiation and isolation of individuals as a result of communication;

5) the function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships serves the interests of establishing and maintaining fairly stable and productive connections, contacts and relationships between people in the interests of their joint activities;

6) the intrapersonal function of communication is realized in a person’s communication with himself (through internal or external speech, completed as a dialogue). Such communication can be considered as a universal form of human thinking.[7]

The concepts of the structure and functions of communication are most directly related to various classifications of types and types of communication.

The concept of “communication” is complex, therefore it is necessary to outline its structure. In the psychological literature, when characterizing the structure of communication, three of its interconnected sides are usually distinguished: communicative, interactive and perceptual.

Communication side

The communicative side of communication consists of the exchange of information between people. Understanding a person by a person is associated with the establishment and maintenance of communication.

Sources of information in communication:

§ signals directly from another person;

§ signals from one’s own sex-perceptual systems;

§ information about the results of activities;

§ information from internal experience;

§ information about the probable future.

Depending on the requirements of the moment, different sources of information and their different contents come to the fore.

A person must be able to somehow distinguish “good” information from “bad” information. How does this happen? An interesting explanation was proposed by psychologist B.F. Porshnev. He came to the conclusion that speech is a method of suggestion, or suggestion, but there is also “a counter psychological activity called counter-suggestion, counter-suggestion, which contains methods of protection against the effects of speech.”

B.F. Porshnev identified 3 types of counter-suggestion: avoidance, authority and misunderstanding. Avoidance implies avoidance of contacts with a partner (the person is inattentive, does not listen, does not look at the interlocutor, finds a reason to be distracted). Avoidance is manifested not only by avoiding communication with another person, but also by avoiding certain situations. For example, people who do not want their opinions or decisions to be influenced simply do not show up to meetings or appointments. The effect of authority is that, having divided all people into authoritative ones, a person trusts only the first and refuses to trust the second. You can find many reasons for assigning authority to a specific person (status, superiority in parameters, attractiveness in specific situations, etc.) The reasons are determined by your own history and core values. The effectiveness of communication will depend on the nature of the formation of ideas about authority among the interlocutor. Sometimes dangerous information can come from people we generally trust. In a quiet case, we can defend ourselves with a peculiar misunderstanding of the message itself.

For almost all people it is important to be listened to and heard. For anyone interested in effective communication, it is important to be able to overcome psychological barriers, i.e. be able to manage attention.

There is a whole group of techniques for attracting attention:

§ technique of a “neutral phrase”. At the beginning of communication, a phrase is pronounced that is not related to the main topic, but has meaning and value for everyone present.

§ the technique of “enticement” - the speaker first pronounces very quietly, very incomprehensibly, unintelligibly, which forces others to listen attentively.

§ technique of establishing eye contact - by looking closely at a person, we attract his attention; By moving away from gaze, we show that we do not want to communicate. But in communication it is important not only to attract attention, but also to maintain it.

The first group of techniques for maintaining attention is “isolation” techniques (isolate communication from external factors - noise, lighting, conversation, or be able to isolate yourself from internal factors - instead of listening, thinks about your remarks or simply waits for the end of the speech to enter into a conversation yourself) .

The second group of techniques is related to “imposing a rhythm.” A person’s attention constantly fluctuates, so by changing the characteristics of voice and speech, we do not give the interlocutor the opportunity to relax and miss the necessary information.

And finally, the third group of maintenance techniques is accentuation techniques. You can draw attention to the necessary information using certain words (“please pay attention to...”), “it is important to note that...”, etc.) or through contrast with the surrounding background.

Interactive side

To properly understand the communication process, it is important to imagine the actions of your partner, which are carried out in certain situations. The second side of communication is interactive, which consists in organizing interaction between individuals, i.e. sharing not only knowledge, but also actions.

One possible way to understand a communication situation is to perceive positions relative to each other. The approach to analyzing a situation depending on positions was developed by E. Berne in line with transactional analysis and his followers (T. Harris, M. James and D. Jonjeval, etc.) From E. Berne’s point of view, when people come into contact, they are in one of basic states: child, adult or parent. The child’s state is the actualization of attitudes and behavior developed in childhood (emotionality, mobility, playfulness or depression, etc.). The adult’s state is focused on reality (attentiveness, maximum focus on the partner). A parent is a state of the EGO whose feelings and attitudes relate to the role of a parent (criticism, condescension, arrogance, concern, etc.). The success of communication depends on whether the egos—the states of the communicants—correspond to each other. Thus, pairs of ego states such as “child - child”, “adult - adult”, “parent - child” are favorable for communication. For success in communication, all other combinations of ego states must be brought to the above.

Perceptual side

The third important aspect of communication is perceptual. It means the process of communication partners perceiving each other and establishing mutual understanding on this basis. From a perception point of view, it is important to form a correct first impression. Psychologists have discovered that the image of another person can be built according to different standard schemes. A perception scheme based on the type of overestimation of people’s qualities is often used. When we meet a person who is superior to us in terms of an important partner, we evaluate him more positively. And if we are dealing with a person whom we are superior to, then we underestimate him. You should know that superiority is recorded in one parameter, and underestimation occurs in several parameters. This error in perception has its own name - the superiority factor.

An equally important parameter when perceiving another person is whether we like this person’s appearance or not. If we like a person outwardly, then we tend to consider him smarter, more interesting, etc. This error in perception is associated with an overestimation or underestimation of a person’s properties and is called the attractiveness factor.

The following diagram is associated with the so-called “attitude towards us” factor. Those people who treat us well seem better to us than those who treat us badly.

When forming first impressions, these patterns of perception of people are called the halo effect. The halo effect manifests itself in the fact that when forming a first impression, a general positive impression of a person leads to an overestimation of an unknown person. It follows from this that our initial impression is always wrong. But that's not true. Special studies show that an adult with experience in communication is able to accurately determine the characteristics of a partner; this accuracy occurs only in neutral situations. In real life, there is always one or another percentage of errors.

During long-term communication, the results of the first impression continue to apply. In constant communication, a deeper and more objective understanding of the partner becomes important. It is known that the ability to adequately perceive other individuals varies from person to person. Why? Some believe that it depends on life experience (but there are young people who can see in a partner and understand what is happening to him, etc.)

Psychological research shows that the entire external appearance (a person’s face, his gestures, facial expressions, gait, manner of standing, sitting) carries information about his emotional states, his attitude towards others, his attitude towards himself. (Appendix B shows a diagram of the factors of effective communication ).

In order to understand a partner in communication, you need not only knowledge and experience, you also need to be focused on him (the desire to understand what he is thinking about, why he is worried, etc.) The mechanism of this type of perception of another is empathy. It is based on the ability to put oneself in the place of another, to feel his state and position and take all this into account in one’s behavior.

It is important in communication to take into account the ways and mechanisms of building interaction. How does a person explain the behavior of other people in practice? A whole direction has emerged in psychology: the study of the processes and results of causal attribution (attribution of causes) of behavior. When does causal attribution occur? When difficulties arise during joint activities. For example, an employee is providing work. And he can interpret the reason for being late in different ways - this is connected with attribution (you can see the reason for being late in the circumstances, i.e. motivate by external attribution; you can look for the reason in yourself, i.e. motivate by internal attribution). An important issue in understanding the essence of communication is the question of the means and mechanisms of influence of communication participants on each other.

So, to summarize, we can state the following: the functions of communication are understood as those roles and tasks that communication performs in the process of human social existence. There are affective-communicative, information-communicative and regulatory-communicative functions of communication.

1. The affective-communicative (perceptual) function, which is based on the perception and understanding of another person, including a communication partner, is aimed at regulating the emotional sphere of the human psyche, since communication is the most important determinant of a person’s emotional states.

2. The information and communication function of communication consists of any type of exchange of information between interacting individuals. The exchange of information in human communication has its own specifics: it is carried out between two individuals, each of whom is an active subject; it necessarily involves the interaction of thoughts, feelings and behavior of partners.

3. The regulatory-communicative (interactive) function of communication is to regulate behavior and directly organize the joint activities of people in the process of their interaction. In this process, a person can influence motives, goals, programs, decision-making, execution and control of actions, ᴛ.ᴇ. on all components of their partner’s activities, including mutual stimulation and behavior correction.