Observation in psychology: what is it, types and methods of research

Classification

Observation methods in psychology are classified depending on various factors. Separation by systematicity:

Systematic - the research is carried out according to a clear plan developed in advance. Environmental conditions are taken into account.
Non-systematic - Scientists create an overall picture of the behavior of one person or group. At the same time, individual manifestations of behavior are not recorded.

In psychology, the following types of observation are also distinguished:

Selective - the observer records, photographs or films only certain parameters of behavior, manifestations of activity on the part of the subject.
Continuous - the researcher records any changes in a person’s behavior and actions.

Forms of observation:

conscious;
unconscious external;
unconscious inner;
unconscious surroundings.

During mindful observation, the individual is warned in advance about the study. Sometimes scientists tell the subject about the main tasks and purposes of surveillance, but more often this data is hidden, completely different motives are named so that the person behaves naturally.

Features of the conscious form of observation:

scientists influence the behavior of the subject, which can negatively affect the result;
the object of observation may deliberately change its behavior.

During unconscious internal observation, the scientist does not interfere in the life of the subject, but becomes part of his surrounding world. At the same time, he can start a conversation with the object of surveillance.

Peculiarities:

An observer can use various methods to obtain information.
Many difficulties arise with recording information, since the observed subject can leave the country, stay at home or at work for a long time. It is impossible to create a clear schedule for observation, which is why surveillance is delayed for an indefinite period of time.

In rare cases, the observer may lose his or her secrecy when interacting with the subject in person.

With unconscious external observation, the person does not know that he is being monitored, and the researcher refuses any contact with the subject. It is impossible to control the monitoring process. Observers often change so that a person cannot suspect them of surveillance.

Code of Ethics

For the proper use and characterization of the observation method, one must follow the basic rules of psychology as established by the Code of Ethics of the American Psychological Association. The researcher must adhere to precautionary measures.

If the trial is carried out in a public place, it is not necessary to obtain the consent of the participants. And for individual research, you need to obtain the subject's permission . Psychologists must behave carefully and try not to harm others. If this cannot be avoided, it is recommended to reduce the damage.

Intrusion into the privacy of participants should also be kept to a minimum. But when observing the behavior of family members, you need to obtain their consent and explain the purpose of the task. If a person engages in self-observation, then he can study any area of his life. All data about the subjects remains confidential, psychologists have no right to disclose them. Only the results obtained can be published without indicating names, addresses and other personal information.

Observation stages:

object selection;
data registration;
creating a plan;
selection of information processing method;
carrying out the procedure itself;
interpretation of data.

At the first stage, the psychologist selects the object and subject, the time and place of observation. He then selects the most appropriate research method and records all the data. After planning and choosing processing methods, he proceeds directly to the observation itself. The results obtained are interpreted to produce a report.

Advantages and disadvantages of the method

In psychology, the observation method has certain advantages and disadvantages that must be taken into account when using the technique. Advantages:

The ability to record behavioral changes in natural conditions.
Achieving multidimensional coverage. Thanks to this, it is possible to record several parameters, which include verbal and non-verbal.
The ability to conduct research using a group of people, recording the characteristics of relationships between individuals and assessing their behavior in the same situations.
There is no need to create certain conditions for observation, use laboratory equipment, or prepare a person.

Flaws:

some factors may interfere with the study;
surveillance requires a lot of money, people, time;
you need to be able to correctly note important points, compare the data obtained with each other, and draw conclusions.

The result of the surveillance process can be affected by:

incorrect action plan;
fatigue of the person conducting the surveillance;
halo effect;
errors in modeling different situations;
wrong first impression;
presence of own prejudices;
social status of the subject, experimenter;
the mood in which the observer is when performing the assigned work.

Some researchers do not take into account the life situations of the observed subject, which causes the results to be incorrect.

Observation: a research method in psychology

Observation in psychology is a descriptive psychological research method that involves the purposeful and organized perception and recording of the behavior of the object being studied. Observation is a purposeful, organized and recorded perception of the object being studied in a certain way. During observation, phenomena are studied directly under the conditions in which they occur in real life.

Where is it used?

Together with introspection, observation is considered the oldest psychological method. Scientific observation has become widely used since the end of the 19th century in areas where recording the characteristics of human behavior in various conditions is of particular importance - in clinical, social, educational psychology, developmental psychology, and since the beginning of the 20th century - in occupational psychology. Observation is used when it is either impossible or impermissible to interfere with the natural course of the process.

Types of surveillance

Observation, as a research method in psychology, can be different. It can be conscious or not, external or internal, continuous or selective, systematic or not. Cm.

Features of the method

Observation is used where the intervention of the experimenter will disrupt the process of human interaction with the environment. This method is indispensable when it is necessary to obtain a holistic picture of what is happening and reflect the behavior of individuals in its entirety.

The main features of the observation method are:

direct connection between the observer and the observed object;
bias (emotional coloring) of observation;
difficulty (sometimes impossibility) of repeated observation.

In natural sciences, the observer, as a rule, does not influence the process (phenomenon) being studied. In psychology there is a problem of interaction between the observer and the observed. If the subject knows that he is being observed, then the presence of the researcher influences his behavior. The limitations of the observation method gave rise to other, more “advanced” methods of empirical research: experiment and measurement. See Druzhinin V.N. Experimental psychology. - St. Petersburg. 2000 and Pros and cons of the observation method

Subject of observation

The objects of observation are various behavioral features. Objects of research can be:

Verbal behavior, including content, duration and intensity of speech,
Nonverbal behavior - expression of the face, eyes, body, expressive movements, etc.,
Movements of people - distance between people, physical impacts (touching, pushing, hitting, etc.).

That is, the object of observation can only be that which can be objectively recorded. Thus, the researcher does not observe the properties of the psyche; he registers only those manifestations of the object that are available for recording. And only based on the assumption that the psyche finds its manifestation in behavior, a psychologist can build hypotheses about mental properties based on data obtained during observation.

How to conduct an observation

The results of observations carried out for research purposes are usually recorded in special protocols. It is good when the observation is carried out not by one person, but by several, and then the data obtained is compared and generalized (by the method of generalizing independent observations).

When using the observation method, the following requirements must be observed as fully as possible:

Preliminarily outline an observation program, highlighting the most important objects and stages of observation.
The observations made should not affect the natural course of the phenomenon being studied.
It is advisable to observe the same mental phenomenon on different faces. Even if the object of study is a specific person, he can be known better and more deeply by comparing him with others.
Observation must be repeated, and when studying personality, systematic. It is important that it be consistent, that is, repeated observations take into account information obtained from previous observations.

Stages of observational research

Definition of the subject of observation, object, situation.
Selecting a method for observing and recording data.
Creating an observation plan.
Selecting a method for processing results.
Actually an observation.
Processing and interpretation of received information.

Surveillance equipment

Observation can be carried out directly by the researcher, or through observation devices and recording of its results. These include audio, photo, video equipment, and special surveillance maps.

Observation is opposed to experiment. This opposition is based on two points:

Passivity of the observer - the observer does not change the surrounding reality.
Immediacy - the observer records in the protocol what he sees.

APA Code of Ethics and Observations

The American Psychological Association, or APA, Code of Ethics permits observations provided that certain rules are followed and certain precautions are taken. Here are some of them:

If the research is conducted in a public place, obtaining informed consent from participants is not considered necessary. Otherwise, it is necessary to obtain their consent.
Psychologists should do everything possible to avoid harm to research participants and, if it cannot be avoided, to reduce the expected harm.
Psychologists should minimize intrusions into privacy.
Psychologists do not disclose confidential information about participants in their studies.

Principles and stages of the study

Sequence of the study:

The object of surveillance is determined.
An assessment of the surrounding situation is carried out, the circumstances under which the observed person lives are identified.
A surveillance plan is created. It is necessary to highlight the main points so as not to get confused when following.
The method of processing the received data is selected.
Surveillance tools are being prepared.

After completing all the actions and collecting information, it is necessary to compare the data received, conduct an analysis, and draw conclusions.

In America, there is a code of ethics according to which surveillance can only be carried out if a number of rules are observed:

Consent to surveillance does not need to be asked if it is carried out in a public place. In other cases, permission will be required.
The psychologist should interfere minimally in the life of the observed person.
It is strictly forbidden to disclose information about observed people or to indicate accurate data in publicly available documents.
If the object of surveillance is in danger, the researcher must minimize the risk of injury to the person.

Errors that cause incorrect results:

Incorrect correlation. The scientist explains the manifestation of some signs based on others.
Wrong first impression. The researcher records data based on his first impressions.
The effect of leniency. A psychologist by nature gives predominantly positive assessments.
Contrast errors. The observer is accustomed to characterizing other people by traits that he does not have.
Errors of central tendency. The scientist tries to give a neutral assessment of the manifestations of activity.
Halo effect. The researcher becomes fixated on the subject's actions and does not notice the little things.

Observation is used in various areas of human life. Using this method, you can obtain general information about a person’s habits, behavior, and presence in society. To complete it, it is enough to keep the goal in sight, mark important points in a notebook, take photographs, and record videos.

Requirements for surveillance and its effectiveness

In order for surveillance to be effective, it must meet a number of requirements:

it must be selective, i.e. proceed from a clearly defined goal, highlight a certain aspect of the object being studied;
it must be planned and systematic, i.e. be built on the basis of a specific plan and carried out over a certain period of time;
it is important to record the observed phenomenon in as much detail as possible, i.e. completeness of observation is necessary;
It is imperative to define observation situations, identify units and signs of observation, as well as methods for recording them.

To take into account all these requirements as much as possible, as a rule, an observation program up, which in a formalized form includes the following points: goals and objectives of observation, object of observation, subject, method and type of observation, observed situations, units of observation, observation tools.

The effectiveness of observation depends significantly on the significance of a given situation for the personality of the observer. Increasing the effectiveness of observation is possible if there is a rejection of premature assessments and generalizations, multiple observations, reinforcement by other methods, and the presence of special equipment (for example, a reverse vision mirror).

Typical Observer Errors:

The effect of leniency - the observer does not dare to give a negative rating;
The central tendency effect is the tendency to give average grades;
Logical errors (one who is articulate is judged to be smart, etc.);
Haloeffect - by highlighting a bright feature, the observer changes the assessments of all other qualities.

Surveillance equipment

To carry out all the work, technical and analytical tools to record the results.

They use graduated scales, tests, and questionnaires. At the same time, category systems are distinguished.

They are a collection of specific category blocks that characterize a particular trait or process and make it possible to describe it based on a selection of data . This system is somewhat similar to tests, but does not give such a definitive result.

Test methods based on questionnaires are widely used for periodic examination of the study population. They are convenient for multiple checks and subsequent statistical processing.

Qualitative changes can be assessed using scales . They can be visual, when the subject is asked to visually assess the intensity of a process or phenomenon, and digital, when this is also reflected in numbers.

In addition to analytical methods, technical means in the form of photography and video tracking are widely used.

Since private information is protected by law, the use of such data is possible after the consent of the subject , which somewhat limits the use of this method of obtaining information. These means also limit the testing time.

Advantages of the observation method

By observing something or someone, we can benefit from it:

Obtaining extensive data from the subject being studied . You can study an object by obtaining the widest possible amount of information about it.
No data distortion . The more we delve into the issue ourselves, the less likely we are to receive false information. As the famous proverb says: if you want something done well, do it yourself.
Personal participation in the process . This can be especially gratifying when the research excites the observer.
Independence . The one who studies this object or subject is in no way connected with it and does not bear any consequences for himself. The main tool here is interest and observation, which do not cost much effort.
Allows you to capture details and capture what you might miss.

Systematization of species

The accumulated base of variable classifications allows us to distinguish the types of research method:

conscious and unconscious. The first type of research involves organizing an examination with open recording of manifestations of mental activity and permanent interaction between a psychologist-observer and the people being studied. The unconscious method implies not advertising the diagnostic method for the object;
external and internal. The appearance of psychodiagnostics is characterized by the collection of information through studying the object from the outside. The researcher’s personal study of the ongoing processes in his consciousness is defined as an internal view;
continuous and selective. The main root cause of the difference between the two types is related to the objects being recorded. In the continuous form, the psychologist takes into account the entire volume of information obtained during observation. The selective type is the focus of the researcher’s attention solely on the totality of data required for the issue being studied;
systematic and non-systematic. The basis of these types was the regularity of observation;
long-term and short-term. The first is characterized by the duration of the survey over a long period of time, even extending the time frame of the study to several years. An observation of a short-term type is determined by a limited period of study;
included and not included. The type of research that analyzes the topic being studied “from the inside”, in which the observing psychologist becomes a participant in the group under study, is called included. The second type is characterized by collecting data “from the outside”;
natural and laboratory. In the natural version, study and analysis are carried out in a natural environment for humans. The laboratory method involves creating an artificial environment for study.

Psychological research through observation can be carried out personally by a psychologist or with the introduction of all kinds of recording techniques into psychodiagnostics. However, the use of equipment is not always permissible during observation due to the fact that undisguised recording may affect the validity of the information, and the inclusion in the process of equipment hidden from the eyes of the objects of study becomes a controversial issue that raises ethical issues.

Disadvantages of the observation method

The only point of view . This can be either a positive or a negative factor, but rather a negative one. This is due to the fact that one person may have a biased opinion or may not notice an important detail, which means the data will be inaccurate or isolated within one person.
It cannot be applied to a large number of terms . Since there is often only one observer, it is possible to examine only one object or, in extreme cases, several. If a large number of objects under consideration are needed, the observer will not be able to cope with them.
Large energy costs . For an observer, this can be a difficult task, since he will have to direct all his strength, time, and creation to a single goal. To accomplish this you need to have perseverance and common sense, which is beyond the power of energetic and motoric individuals.
Time limit . Usually, the observer is given a limited amount of time for the task, this may affect the accuracy and correctness of data acquisition. Such an important approach to the matter must be done with a large time resource, which is not always possible.
Intervention on the part of the researcher is possible . This can happen if he is too enthusiastic and brings personal experiences, interest, and passion for this event into the study. This can be a significant drawback, as it is easy to spoil the flow of events.
Psychological and physical characteristics of the observer . Behavioral factors may affect the observation process; it may even be that the researcher has no interest in the object in question, it is simply necessary to complete the task as assigned. In such a situation, there may be a lack of observation, perseverance, desire to obtain information and other understandable reasons.
Changing the observable object . Factors that can happen to the observer have already been taken into account, but what about the object itself? Something can always happen that was not within the scope of study of the subject and atypical changes have occurred that cannot allow it to be studied in the future.

Advantages and disadvantages

The advantages of this method in psychology and psychodiagnostics include:

simplicity,
cheapness,
wide coverage of subjects studied,
a large selection of implementation tools,
the possibility of both long-term and one-time experience,
frequent use in other research methods.

Among the disadvantages are:

high percentage of errors and errors,
a large number of external influence factors,
the need for the presence of a specialist researcher (impact on the process itself),
difficulties in classifying results,
multiplicity of evaluation stages (testing, survey), which reduces the reliability of the result,
lack of uniform methods of implementation.